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PALESTINE 




Harper's Stereotype Edition* 



PALE STINE, 

OR THE 

HOLY LAND. 

FROM 

TIIE EARLIEST PERIOD TO THE PRESENT TIME. 



BY THE REV. MICHAEL RUSSELL, LLD 

Author of u View of Ancient and Modern Egypt." 



WITH A MAP AND NINE EXSRAVIN'tfS, 



NEW-YORK : 
PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY J. & J. HARPER, 

NO. 82 CLIFF- STREET, 

iND SOLD BY THE PRINCIPAL BOOKSELLERS THROUGHOUT 
THE UNITED STATES. 



1832. 




am 

Mrs. Hennen Jennings 
April 26, 1933 



yj> J. ifOtf* 

rf? 

PREFACE. 



In giving an account of the Holy Land, an 
author, upon examining his materials, finds him- 
self presented with the choice either of simple 
history on the one hand, or of mere local descrip- 
tion on the other ; and the character of his book is 
of course determined by the selection which he 
makes of the first or the second of these depart- 
ments. The volumes on Palestine hitherto laid 
before the public will accordingly be found to con- 
tain either a bare abridgment of the annals of the 
Jewish people, or a topographical delineation of 
the country, the cities, and the towns which they 
inhabited, from the date of the conquest under 
Joshua, down to the period of their dispersion by 
Titus and Adrian. Several able works have re- 
cently appeared on each of these subjects, and 
have been, almost without exception, rewarded with 
the popularity which is seldom refused to learning 
and eloquence. But it occurred to the writer of 
the following pages, that the expectations of the 
general reader would be more fully answered 
were the two plans to be united, and the constitu- 
tion, the antiquities, the religion, the literature, and 
even the statistics of the Hebrews combined with 
the narrative of their rise and fall in the sacred land 
bestowed upon their fathers. 

A2 



10 PREFACE. 

In following out this scheme, he has made it his 
study to leave no source of information unexplored 
which might supply the means of illustrating the 
political condition of the Twelve Tribes imme- 
diately after they settled on the banks of the Jordan. 
The principles which entered into the constitution 
of their commonwealth are extremely interesting, 
both as they afford a fine example of the progress 
of society in one of its earliest stages, when the 
migratory shepherd gradually assumes the habits 
of the agriculturist ; and also as they confirm the 
results of experience, in other cases, in regard to 
the change which usually follows in the form of 
civil government, and in the concentration of power 
in the hands of an individual. 

The chapter on the Literature and Religion of 
the Ancient Hebrews cannot boast of a great va- 
riety of materials, because what of the subject is 
not known to the youngest reader of the Bible must 
be sought for in the writings of Rabbinical authors, 
who have unfortunately directed the largest share 
of their attention to the minutest parts of their 
Law, and expended the labour of elucidation on 
those points which are least interesting to the rest 
of the world. It is to be deeply regretted, that so 
little is known respecting the Schools of the Pro- 
phets — those seminaries which sent forth, not only 
the ordinary ministers of the Temple and the Syna- 
gogue, but also that more distinguished order of 
men who were employed as instruments for reveal- 
ing the future intentions of Providence. But the 
Author hesitates not to say, that he has availed 
himself of all the materials which the research of 
modern times has brought to light, while he has 



PREFACE. 



11 



carefully rejected all such speculations or con- 
jectures as might gratify the curiosity of learning 
without tending to edify the youthful mind. The 
account which is given of the Feasts and Fasts of 
the Jews, both before and after the Babylonian Cap- 
tivity, will, it is hoped, prove useful to the reader, 
more especially by pointing out to him appropriate 
subjects of reflection while perusing the Sacred 
Records. 

The history of Palestine, prior to the Fall of Je- 
rusalem, rests upon the authority of the inspired 
writers, or of those annalists, such as Josephus 
and Tacitus, who flourished at the period of the 
events which they describe. The narrative, which 
brings down the fortunes of that remarkable coun- 
try to the present day, is much more various both 
in its subject and references ; more especially where 
it embraces the exploits of the Crusaders, those 
renowned devotees of religion, romance, and chiv- 
alry. The reader will find in a narrow compass 
the substance of the extensive works of Fuller, 
Wilken, Michaud, and Mills. In the more modern 
part of this historical outline, in which the affairs 
of Palestine are intimately connected with those 
of Egypt, it was thought unnecessary to repeat 
facts mentioned at some length in the volume 
already published on the latter country.* 

The topographical description of the Holy Land 
is drawn from the works of the long series of trav- 
ellers and pilgrims, who, since the time of the faith- 
ful Doubdan, have visited the interesting scenes 
where the Christian Faith had its origin and com- 
pletion. On this subject Maundrell is still a prin- 

[* No. XXIIL of this Family Library.] 



12 



PREFACE. 



cipal authority ; for, while we have the best reason 
to believe that he recorded nothing but what he 
saw, we can trust implicitly to the accuracy of his 
details in describing every thing which fell under 
his observation. The same high character is due 
to Pococke and Sandys, writers whose simplicity 
of style and thought afford a voucher for the truth 
of their narratives. Nor are Thevenot, Paul Lucas, 
and Careri, though less frequently consulted, at all 
unworthy of confidence as depositaries of historical 
facts. In more modern times we meet with equal 
fidelity, recommended by an exalted tone of feel- 
ing, in the volumes of Chateaubriand and Dr. Rich- 
ardson. Clarke, Burckhardt, Buckingham, Legh, 
Henniker, Jowett, Light, Mac worth, Irby and Man- 
gles, Came, and Wilson, have not only contributed 
valuable materials, but also lent the aid of their 
names to correct or to confirm the statements of 
some of the more apocryphal among their prede- 
cessors. 

The chapter on Natural History has no preten- 
sions to scientific arrangement or technical precision 
in its delineations. On the contrary, it is calculated 
solely for the common reader, who would soon be 
disgusted with the formal notation of the botanist, 
and could not understand the learned terms in 
which the student of zoology too often finds the 
knowledge of animal nature concealed. Its main 
object is to illustrate the Scriptures, by giving an 
account of the quadrupeds, birds, serpents, plants, 
and fruits which are mentioned from time to time 
by the inspired writers of either Testament. 

Edinburgh, September , 1831. 



CONTENTS, 



CHAPTER L 

INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATION'S, 

Interest attached to the History of Palestine — Remarkable Character of 
the Hebrew People — Their small Beginning and astonishing Increase 
— The Variety of Fortune they underwent — Their constant Attach- 
ment to the Promised Land — The Subject presents an interesting 
Problem to the Historian and Politician — The Connexion with Chris- 
tianity — Effect of this Religion on the Progress of Society — Importance 
of the Subject to the pious Reader — Holy Places — Pilgrims — Grounds 
for Believing the Ancient Traditions on this Head — Constantine and 
the Empress Helena— Relics— Natural Scenery — Extent of Canaan — 
Fertility— Geographical Distribution — Countries Eastward of the Jor- 
dan — Galilee — Samaria — Bethlehem — Jericho— The Dead Sea— Table 
representing the Possessions of the Twelve Tribes Page 17 

CHAPTER II. 

HISTORY OF" THE HEBREW COMMONWEALTH. 

Form of Government after the Death of Joshua — In Egypt — In the Wil- 
derness— Princes of Tribes and Heads of Families — Impatience to take 
Possession of Promised Land— The Effects of it — Renewal of War — 
Extent of Holy Land — Opinions of Fleury. Spanheim, Reland, and 
Lowman — Principle of Distribution — Each Tribe confined to a sepa- 
rate Locality — Property Unalienable — Conditions of Tenure — Popula- 
tion of the Tribes— Number of principal Families — A General Govern* 
ment or National Council — The Judges — Nature of their Authority — 
Not ordinary Magistrates — Different from Kings, Consuls, and Dic- 
tators — Judicial Establishments — Judges and Officers — Described by 
Josephus— Equality of Condition among the Hebrews — Their Inclina- 
tion for a Pastoral Life — Freebooters like the Arabs — Abimelech, Jeph- 
thah, and David— Simplicity of the Times — Boaz and Ruth— Tribe of 
Levi — Object of their Separation — The learned Professions hereditary, 
after the Manner of the Egyptians — TheLevitical Cities — Their Num* 
ber and Uses —Opinion of >Iichaelis— Summary View of the Times and 
Character of the Hebrew Judges 35 

CHAPTER HI. 

HISTORICAL OUTLINE FROM THE ACCESSION OF SAUL TO THE DE- 
STRUCTION OF JERUSALEM. 

Weakness of Republican Government— Jealousy of the several Tribes 
— Resolution to have a King — Rules for regal Government — Character 
of Saul— Of David— Troubles of his R*ign — Accession of Solomon— 
Erection of the Temple — Commerce— ^Murmurs of the People — Refco 

B 



14 



CONTENTS. 



boam— Division of the Tribes— Kings of Israel— Kingdom of Judah 
— Siege of Jerusalem— Captivity— Kings of Judah— Return from 
Babylon— Second Temple— Canon of Scripture — Struggles between 
Egypt and Syria — Conquest of Palestine by Antiochus — Persecution 
of Jews — Resistance by the Family of Maccabaeus — Victories of Judas 
— He courts the Alliance of the Romans — Succeeded by Jonathan — 
Origin of the Asmonean Princes— John Hyrcanus— Aristobulus — 
Alexander Jannaeus — Appeal to Pompey— Jerusalem taken by Romans 
— Herod created King by the Romans — He repairs the Temple— Ar- 
chelaus succeeds him, and Antipas is nominated to Galilee— Quirinius 
Prefect of Syria — Pontius Pilate — Elevation of Herod Agrippa — Dis- 
grace of Herod Philip— Judea again a Province — Troubles— Accession 
of Young Agrippa— Felix — Festus — Floris — Command given to Ves- 
pasian — War — Siege of Jerusalem by Titus « Page 60 

CHAPTER IV. 

ON THE LITERATURE AND RELIGIOUS USAGES OF THE ANCIENT] 

HEBREWS. 

Obscurity of the Subject — Learning issued from the Levitical Colleges- 
Schools of the Prophets — Music and Poetry — Meaning of the term 
Prophecy — Illustrated by References to the Old Testament and to the 
New — The Power of Prediction not confined to those bred in the 
Schools — Race of False Prophets — Their Malignity and Deceit — Mi- 
caiah and Ahab — Charge against Jeremiah the Prophet — Criterion to 
distinguish True from False Prophets — The Canonical Writings of 
the Prophets — Literature of Prophets — Sublime Nature of their Com- 
positions — Examples from Psalms and Prophetical Writings — Humane 
and liberal Spirit— Care used to keep alive the Knowledge of the Law 
— Evils arising from the Division of Israel and Judah — Ezra collects 
the Ancient Books — Schools of Prophets similar to Convents — Sciences 
— Astronomy — Division of Time, Days, Months, and Years — Sabbaths 
and New Moons — Jewish Festivals — Passover— Pentecost — Feast of 
Tabernacles — Of Trumpets — Jubilee — Daughters of Zelophedad — 
Feast of Dedication — Minor Anniversaries — Solemn Character of He- 
brew Learning — Its easy Adaptation to Christianity — Superior to the 
Literature of all other ancient Nations 88 

CHAPTER V. 

DESCRIPTION OF JERUSALEM, 

Pilgrimages to the Holy Land — Arculfus — Willibald — Bernard— Effect 
of Crusades — William de Bouldesell — Bertrandon de la Broquiere — 
State of Damascus — Breidenbach— Baumgarten— Bartholemeo George- 
witz — Aldersey — Sandys— Doubdan — Cheron — Thevenot— Gonzales— 
Morison — Maundrell— Pococke— Road from Jaffa to Jerusalem — Plain 
of Sharon — Rama or Ramlu — Condition of the Peasantry — Vale of 
Jeremiah — Jerusalem — Remark of Chateaubriand — Impressions of 
different Travellers— Dr. Clarke— Tasso— Volney— Henniker — Mosque 
of Omar described— Mysterious Stone — Church of Holy Sepulchre — 
Ceremonies of Good Friday — Easter — The Sacred Fire— Grounds for 
Skepticism — Folly of the Priests — Emotion upon entering the Holy 
Tomb— Description of Chateaubriand — Holy Places in the City — Ob 
Mount Zion— Pool of Siloam— Fountain of the Virgin — Valley of Je- 
hoshaphat— Mount of Offence— The Tombs of Zechariah, of Jehosha- 



CONTENTS. 



15 



phat, and of Absalom — Jewish Architecture — Dr. Clarke's Opinion 
on the Topography of Ancient Jerusalem — Opposed by other Writers 
— The Inexpediency of such Discussions Page 113 

CHAPTER VI. 

DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY SOUTH AND EAST OF JERUSALEM^ 

Garden of Gethsemane — Tomb of Virgin Mary — Grottoes on Mount of 
Olives — View of the City — Extent and Boundaries — View of Bethany 
and Dead Sea — Bethlehem — Convent— Church of the Nativity de- 
scribed — Paintings— Music — Population of Bethlehem — Pools of Solo- 
mon — Dwelling of Simon the Leper — Of Mary Magdalene — Tower of 
Simeon — Tomb of Rachel— Convent of St. John — Fine Church— Tekoa 
— Bethulia — Hebron — Sepulchre of Patriarchs — Albaid — Kerek — Ex- 
tremity of Dead Sea— Discoveries of Bankes, Legh, and Irby and Man- 
gles — Convent of St. Saba — Valley of Jordan — Mountains — Descrip- 
tion of Lake Asphaltires— Remains of ancient Cities in its Basin — Qual- 
ity of its Waters — Apples of Sodom — Tacitus, Seetzen, Hasselquist, 
Chateaubriand— Width of River Jordan — Jericho— Village of Rihhah 
^-Balsam — Fountain of Elisha— Mount of Temptation — Place of 
Blood — Anecdote of Sir F. Henniker — Fountain of the Apostles — Re- 
turn to Jerusalem — Markets — Costume — Science— Arts — Language- 
Jews — Present Condition of that People 161 

CHAPTER VII. 

DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY NORTHWARD OF JERUSALEM. 

Grotto of Jeremiah — Sepulchres of the Kings — Singular Doors — Village 
of Leban— Jacob' s Well — Valley of Shechem — Nablous — Samaritans 
— Sebaste — Jennin — Gilead — Geraza, or Djerash — Description of 
Ruins— Gergasha of the Hebrews— Rich Scenery of Gilead — River 
Jabbok — Souf— Ruins of Gamala— Magnificent Theatre — Gadara — 
Capernaum, or Talhewm — Sea of Galilee— Bethsaida and Chorazin — 
Tarachea— Sumuk — Tiberias — Description of modern Town — House 
of St. Peter — Baths — University — Mount Tor, or Tabor — Description by 
Pococke, Maundrell, Burckhardt, and Doubdan — View from the Top 
— Great Plain — Nazareth— Church of Annunciation — Workshop of 
Joseph — Mount of Precipitation — Table of Christ — Cana, or Refer 
Kenna— Waterpots of Stone— Saphet, or Szaffad— University — French 
•—Sidney Smith— Dan — Sepphoris— Church of St. Anne — Description 
by Dr. Clarke — Vale of Zabulon— Vicinity of Acre * 200 

CHAPTER VIII. 

THE HISTORY OF PALESTINE FROM THE FALL OF JERUSALEM TO 

THE PRESENT TIME. 

State of Judea after the Fall of Jerusalem — Revolt under Trajan — Barco- 
chab — Adrian repairs Jerusalem — Schools at Babylon and Tiberias — 
The Attempt of Julian to rebuild the Temple — Invasion of Chosroes 
— Sack of Jerusalem — Rise of Islamism — Wars of the Califs — First 
Crusade — Jerusalem delivered— Policy of Crusades— Victory at As- 
calon— Baldwin King— Second Crusade — Saladin — His Success at 
Tiberias— He recovers Jerusalem— The Third Crusade— Richard 
Coeur de Lion — Siege and Capture of Acre — Plans of Richard — His 
Return to Europe— Death of Saladin— Fourth Crusade— Battle of 



16 



CONTENTS. 



Jaffa— Fifth Crusade— Fall of Constantinople— Sixth Crusade— Da- 
mietta taken — Reverses — Frederick the Second made King of Jerusa- 
lem— Seventh Crusade— Christians admitted into the Holy City— In- 
road of Karismians— Eighth Crusade under Louis IX. — He takes 
Damietta — His Losses and Return to Europe— Ninth Crusade — Louis 
IX. and Edward L — Death of Louis — Successes of Edward — Treaty 
with Sultan— Final Discomfiture of the Franks in Palestine, and 
Loss of Acre — State of Palestine under the Turks — Increased Tole- 
ration — Bonaparte invades Syria — Siege of Acre and Defeat of French 
— Actual State of the Holy Land— Number, Condition, and Character 
of the Jews . , Page 246 

CHAPTER FX. 

THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PALESTINE. 

Travellers too much neglect Natural History — Maundrell, Hasselquist, 
Clarke — Geology — Syrian Chain — Libanus — Calcareous Rocks — 
Granite — Trap — Volcanic Remains — Chalk — Marine Exuviae — Pre- 
cious Stones — Meteorology — Climate of Palestine — Winds — Thun- 
der— Clouds— Waterspouts— Ignis Fatuus — Zoology— Scripture Ani- 
mals—The Hart— The Roebuck— Fallow-deer— Wild Goat— Pygffrg 
— Wild Ox— Chamois — Unicorn — Wild Ass— Wild Goats of the Rock 
— - Saphan, or Cony — Mouse — Porcupine— Jerboa— Mole — Bat — Birds 
— Eagle — Ossifrage — Ospray — Vulture — Kite— Raven — Owl — Night- 
hawk— Cuckoo— Hawk— Little Owl — Cormorant — Great Owl — Swan 
— Pelican — Gier Eagle — Stork — Heron— Lapwing — Hoopoe — Amphi- 
bia and Reptiles — Serpents known to the Hebrews — Ephe — Che- 
phir — Acshub — Pethen — Tzeboa — Tzimmaon — Tzepho — Kippos — 
Shephiphon— Shachal— Saraph,the Flying Serpent— Cockatrice' Eggs 
— The Scorpion — Sea mons ers, or Seals — Fruits and Plants — Ve- 
getable Productions of Palestine— The Fig-tree— Palm— Olive— Cedars 
of Libanus— Wild Grapes— Balsam of Aaron— Thorn of Christ 302 



engravings. 



Map of Palestine To face the Vignette. 

Vignette — Part of Jerusalem, with the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. 

View of Jerusalem from the Mount of Olives Page 125 

Fountain of Siloam , 153 

Tomb of Absalom . 156 

Village of Bethany, and Dead Sea 165 

Subterranean Church of Bethlehem 169 

River Jabbok, and Hills of Bashan 215 

Sea of Galilee, Town of Tiberias, and Baths of Emmaus 223 

Mount Tabor , • .*.,»., 229 



PALESTINE, 

OR 

THE HOLY LAND. 



CHAPTER I. 

Introductory Observations. 

interest attached to the History of Palestine — Remarkable Character of 
the Hebrew People — Their small Beginning and astonishing Increase 
—The Variety of Fortune they underwent — Their constant x\ttach- 
ment to the Promised Land — The Subject presents an interesting 
Problem to the Historian and Politician — The Connexion with Chris- 
tianity—Effect of this Religion on the Progress of Society — Import- 
ance of the Subject to the pious Reader — Holy Places — Pilgrims — 
Grounds for believing the ancient Traditions on this Head— Constan- 
tine and the Empress Helena— Relics — Natural Scenery — Extent of 
Canaan — Fertility — Geographical Distribution— Countries Eastward 
of the Jordan — Galilee — Bethlehem — Samaria — Jericho — The Dead 
Sea — Table representing the Possessions of the Twelve Tribes. 

The country to which the name of Palestine is given by 
the moderns is that portion of the Turkish empire in Asia 
wh c is comprehended within the 31st and 34th degrees 
of north latitude, and extends from the Mediterranean to 
the Syrian Desert, eastward of the river Jordan and the 
Dead Sea. Whether viewed as the source of our religious 
faith, or as the most ancient fountain of our historical 
knowledge, this singular spot of earth has at all times been 
regarded with feelings of the deepest interest and curiosity, 
inhabited for many ages by a people entitled above all 



18 



INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS. 



others to the distinction of peculiar, it presents a record of 
events such as have not come to pass in any other land, 
monuments of a belief denied to all other nations, hopes 
not elsewhere cherished, but which, nevertheless, are con- 
nected with the destiny of the whole human race, and 
stretch forward to the consummation of all terrestrial things. 

To the eye of mere philosophy nothing can appear more 
striking than the effects produced upon the world at large 
by the opinions and events which originated among the 
Jewish people. A pastoral family, neither so numerous, 
so warlike, nor so well instructed in the arts of civilized 
life as many others in the same quarter of the globe, gradu-* 
ally increased into a powerful community, became distin* 
guished by a system of doctrines and usages different from 
those of all the surrounding tribes ; retaining it, too, amid the 
numerous changes of fortune to which they were subjected, 
and finally impressing its leading principles upon the most 
enlightened nations of Asia and of Europe. At a remote era 
Abraham crosses the Euphrates, a solitary traveller, not 
knowing whither he went, but obeying a divine voice, which 
called him from among idolaters to become the father of a 
new people and of a purer faith, at a distance from his 
native country. His grandson Jacob, a " Syrian ready to 
perish," goes down into Egypt with a few individuals, 
where his descendants, although evil entreated and afflicted, 
became a "nation, great, mighty, and populous," and 
whence they were delivered by the special interposition of 
Heaven. In prosperity and adversity they are still the 
objects of the same vigilant Providence which reserved 
them for a great purpose to be accomplished in the latter 
days ; while the Israelites themselves, as if conscious that 
their election was to be crowned with momentous results, 
still kept their thoughts fixed on Palestine, as the theatre 
of their glory, not less than as the possession of their 
tribes. 

We accordingly see them at one period in bondage, the 
victims of a relentless tyranny, and menaced with complete 
extirpation ; but the hope of enjoying the land promised to 
their fathers never ceased to animate their hearts, for they 
trusted that God would surely visit them in the house of 
their affliction, and, in his appointed time, carry them into 
the inheritance of peace and rest. At a later epoch we 



INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS. 19 



behold them swept away as captives by the hands of idola- 
ters, who used all the motives which spring from fear and 
from interest to secure their compliance with a foreign wor- 
ship ; but rejecting all such inducements, they still con- 
tinued a separate people, steadily resisting the operation 
of those causes wmich, in almost every other instance, have 
been found sufficient to melt down a vanquished horde into 
the population and habits of their masters. At length they 
appear as the instruments of a dispensation which em- 
braces the dearest interests of all the sons of Adam ; and 
which, in happier circumstances than ever fell to their 
own lot, has already modified and greatly exalted the char- 
acter, the institutions, and the prospects of the most im- 
proved portion of mankind in both hemispheres of the 
globe. 

Connected with Christianity, indeed, the history of the 
Hebrews rises before the reflecting mind in a very singular 
point of view ; for, in opposition to their own wishes they 
laid the foundations of a religion which has not only 
superseded their peculiar rites, but is rapidly advancing 
towards that universal acceptation w r hich they were wont 
to anticipate in favour of their own ancient law. In spite 
of themselves they have acted as the little leaven which was 
destined to leaven the whole lump ; and in performing this 
office, they have proceeded with nearly the same absence 
of intention and consciousness as the latent principle of 
fermentation to which the metaphor bears allusion. They 
aimed at one thing, and have accomplished another ; but 
while we compare the means with the ends, whether in their 
physical or moral relations, it must be admitted that we 
therein examine one of the most remarkable events re- 
corded in the annals of the human race. 

Abstracting his thoughts from all the considerations of 
supernatural agency which are suggested by the inspired 
narrative, a candid man will nevertheless feel himself com- 
pelled to acknowledge that the course of events which con- 
stitutes the history of ancient Palestine has no parallel in 
any other part of the world. Fixing his eye on the small 
district of Judea, he calls to mind that eighteen hundred 
years ago there dwelt in that little region a singular and 
rather retired people, who, however, differed from the rest 
of mankind in the very important circumstance of not being 



/ 



20 



INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS. 



idolaters. He looks around upon every other country of 
the earth, where he discovers superstitions of the most 
hateful and degrading kind, darkening all the prospects of 
the human being, and corrupting his moral nature in its 
very source. He observes that some of these nations are 
far advanced in many intellectual accomplishments, yet, 
being unable to shake off the tremendous load of error by 
which they are pressed down, are extremely irregular and 
capricious, both in the management of their reason and in 
the application of their affections. He learns, moreover, 
that this little spot called Palestine is despised and scorned 
by those proud kingdoms, whose wise men would not for a 
moment allow themselves to imagine, that any speculation 
or tenet arising from so ignoble a quarter could have the 
slightest influence upon their belief, or affect, in the most 
minute degree, the general character of their social con-? 
dition. 

But, behold, while he yet muses over this interesting 
scene, a Teacher springs up from among the lower orders 
of the Hebrew people, — himself not less contemned by his 
countrymen than they were by the warlike Romans and the 
philosophic Greeks, — whose doctrines, notwithstanding, 
continue to gain ground on every hand, till at last the proud 
monuments of pagan superstition, consecrated by the wor- 
ship of a thousand years, and supported by the authority 
of the most powerful monarchies in the world, fall one after 
another at the approach of his disciples, and before the 
prevailing efficacy of the new faith. A little stone becomes 
a mountain, and fills the whole earth. Judea swells in its 
dimensions till it covers half the globe, carrying captivity 
captive, not by force of arms, but by the progress of opin- 
ion and the power of truth. All the nations of Europe in 
successive ages, — Greek, Roman, Barbarian,- — glory in the 
name of the humble Galilean ; armies, greater than those 
which Persia in the pride of her ambition led forth to 
conquest, are seen swarming into Asia, with the sole view 
of getting possession of his sepulchre ; while the East and 
the West combine to adorn with their treasures the stable 
in which he was born, and the sacred mount on which he 
surrendered his precious life.* 

* See Dialogues on Natural and Revealed Religion. By the Rev, 
Rpjjerf Morehead, D.D., p. 241,— an able and interesting work, 



INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS. 21 

On these grounds, there is presented to the historian and 
politician a problem of the most interesting nature, and 
which is not to be solved by any reference to the ordinary 
principles whence mankind are induced to act or to suffer. 
The effects, too, produced on society, exceed all calcula- 
tion. It is in vain that we attempt to compare them to 
those more common revolutions which have changed for a 
time the face of nations, or given a new dynasty to ancient 
empires. The impression made by such events soon passes 
away : the troubled surface quickly resumes its equilibrium, 
and displays its wonted tranquillity ; and hence we may 
assert, that the present condition of the world is not much 
different from what it would have been, though Alexander 
had never been born and Julius Ceesar had died in his 
cradle. But the occurrences that enter into the history 
of Palestine possess an influence on human affairs which 
has no other limits than the existence of the species, and 
which will be everywhere more deeply felt in proportion 
as society advances in knowledge and refinement. The 
greatest nations upon earth trace their happiness and 
civilization to its benign principles and lofty sanctions. 
Science, freedom, and security, attend its progress among 
all conditions of men ; raising the low, befriending the 
unfortunate, giving strength to the arm of law, and break- 
ing the rod of the oppressor. 

Nor is the subject of less interest to the pious Christian, 
who confines his thoughts to the momentous facts which 
illustrate the early annals of his religion. His affections 
are bound to Palestine by the strongest associations ; and 
every portion of its varied territory, its mountains, its lakes, 
and even its deserts are consecrated in his eyes as the 
scene of some mighty occurrence. His fancy clothes with 
qualities almost celestial that holy land, 

Over whose acres walked those blessed feet, 
Which eighteen hundred years ago were nailed 
For our advantage to the bitter cross.* 

In a former age, when devotional feelings were wont to 
assume a more poetical form than suits the taste of the 
present times, an undue importance, perhaps, was placecj 



* Shakspeare, Henry IV. Part I. Act 1, 



22 INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS 



on the mere localities of Judea, viewed as the theatre on 
which the great events of Christianity were realized, and 
more especially on those relics which were considered as 
identifying particular spots, honoured by the sufferings or 
triumph of its Divine author. The zealous pilgrim, who 
had travelled many thousand miles amid the most appalling 
dangers, required a solace to his faith in the contemplation 
of the cross, or in being permitted to kiss the threshold of 
the tomb in which the body of his Redeemer was laid. To 
such a character no description could be too minute, no details 
could be too particular. Forgetful of the ravages inflicted 
on Jerusalem by the hand of the Romans, and by the more 
furious anger of her own children within her, — fulfilling 
unintentionally that tremendous doom which was pro- 
nounced from the Mount of Olives, — the simple worshipper 
expected to see the hall of judgment, the house of Pilate, 
and the palace of the high-priest, and to be able to trace 
through the streets and lanes of the holy city the path which 
led his Saviour to Calvary. This natural desire to awaken 
piety through the medium of the senses, and to banish all 
unbelief by touching with the hand, and seeing with the 
eye, the memorials of the crucifixion, has, there is reason 
to apprehend, been sometimes abused by fraud as well as 
by ignorance. 

But it is nevertheless w orthy of remark, that from the 
very situation of Jerusalem, so well defined by natural 
limits which it cannot have passed, there is less difficulty in 
determining places with a certain degree of precision than 
would be experienced in any other ancient town. Nor can 
it be justly questioned, that the primitive Christians marked 
with peculiar care the principal localities distinguished by 
the deeds or by the afflictions of their Divine Master. It 
is natural to suppose, as M. Chateaubriand well observes, 
that the apostles and relatives of our Saviour, who com- 
posed his first church upon earth, were perfectly acquainted 
with all the circumstances attending his life, his ministry, 
and his death ; and as Golgotha and the Mount of Olives 
were not enclosed within the walls of the city, they would 
encounter less restraint in performing their devotions in the 
places which were sanctified by his more frequent presence 
and miracles. Besides, the knowledge of these scenes was 
goon extended to a very wide circle. The triumph of Pen* 



INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS. 23 

iecost increased vastly the number of believers ; and hence 
a regular congregation appears to have been formed in Je- 
rusalem before the expiry of the third year from that 
memorable epoch. If it be admitted that the early Chris- 
tians were allowed to erect monuments to their religious 
worship, or even to select houses for their periodical assem- 
blies, the probability will not be questioned that they fixed 
upon those interesting spots which had been distinguished 
by the wonders of their faith. 

At the commencement of the troubles in Judea, during 
the reign of Vespasian, the Christians of Jerusalem withdrew 
to Pellaj and as soon as their metropolis was demolished they 
returned to dwell among its ruins. In the space of a few 
months they could not have forgotten the position of their 
sanctuaries, which, generally speaking, being situated out- 
side the walls, could not have suffered so much from the 
siege as the more lofty edifices within. That the holy 
places were known to all men in the time of Adrian is de- 
monstrated by an undeniable fact. This emperor, when he 
rebuilt the city, erected a statue of Venus on Mount Cal- 
vary, and another of Jupiter on the sacred sepulchre. The 
grotto of Bethlehem was given up to the rites of Adonis , 
the jealousy of the idolaters thus publishing, by their abomi 
nable profanations, the sublime doctrines of the Cross, 
which it was their object to conceal or to calumniate. 

But Adrian, although actuated by an ardent zeal in be- 
half of his own deities, did not persecute the Christians at 
large. His resentment seems to have been confined to the 
Nazarenes in Jerusalem, whom he could not help regarding 
as a portion of the Jewish nation, — the irreconcilable ene- 
mies of Rome. We accordingly perceive, that he had no 
sooner dispersed the church of the Circumcision established 
in the holy city, than he permitted within its walls the 
formation of a Christian community, composed of Gentile 
converts, whose political principles, he imagined, were less 
inimical to the sovereignty of the empire. At the same 
time he wrote to the governors of his Asiatic provinces, in- 
structing them not to molest the believers in Christ, merely 
on account of their creed, but to reserve all punishment 
for crimes committed against the laws and the public tran- 
quillity. It has therefore been very generally admitted, that 
during this period of repose, and even down to the reign of 



24 



INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS. 



Dioclesian, the faithful at Jerusalem, now called ^Elia, cele- 
brated the mysteries of their religion in public, and conse- 
quently had altars consecrated to their worship. If, in- 
deed, they were not allowed the possession of Calvary, the 
Holy Sepulchre, and of Bethlehem, where they might sol- 
emnize their sacred rites, it is not to be imagined that the 
memory of these holy sanctuaries could be effaced from 
their affectionate recollection. The very idols served tor 
mark the places where the Christian redemption was begun 
and completed. Nay, the pagans themselves cherished the 
expectation that the temple of Venus, erected on the sum- , 
mit of Calvary, would not prevent the Christians from vis- 
iting that holy mount ; rejoicing in the idea, as the histo- 
rian Sozomen expresses it, that the Nazarenes, when they 
repaired to Golgotha to pray, would appear to the public 
eye to be offering up their adoration to the daughter of Ju- 
piter. This is a striking proof that a perfect knowledge of 
the sacred places was retained by the church of Jerusalem 
in the middle of the second century. At a somewhat later 
period, when exposed to persecution, if they were not al-* 
lowed to build their altars at the Sepulchre, or proceed 
without apprehension to the scene of the Nativity, they 
enjoyed at least the consolation of keeping alive the remem- 
brance of the great events connected with these interesting 
monuments of their faith ; anticipating, at the same time, 
the approaching ruin of that proud superstition by which 
they had been so long oppressed. 

The conversion of Constantine gave a new vigour to 
these local reminiscences of the evangelical history. That 
celebrated ruler wrote to Macarius, bishop of Jerusalem, to 
cover the tomb of Jesus Christ with a magnificent church ; 
while his mother, the Empress Helena, repaired in person 
to Palestine, in order to give a proper efficacy to the zeal 
which animated the throne, and to assist in searching for 
the venerable remains of the first age of the gospel. To= 
this illustrious female is ascribed the glory of restoring to 
religion some of its most valued memorials. Not satisfied 
with the splendid temple erected at the Holy Sepulchre, she 
ordered two similar edifices to be reared under her own 
auspices ; one over the manger of the Messiah at Bethle- 
hem, and the other on the Mount of Olives, to commemo- 
rate his ascension into heaven. Chapels, altars, and houses 



INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS 



25 



of prayer gradually marked all the places consecrated by 
the acts oflhe Son of Man ; the oral traditions were forth- 
with committed to writing, and thereby secured for ever 
from the treachery of individual recollection.* 

These considerations give great probability to the con- 
jectures of those pious persons who, in the fourth cen- 
tury of our era, assisted the mother of Constantine in fixing 
the locality of holy scenes. From that period down to the 
present day, the devotion of the Christian and the avarice 
of the Mohammedan have sufficiently secured the remem- 
brance both of the places and of the events with which 
chey are associated. But no length of time can wear out 
the impression of deep reverence and respect which are ex- 
cited by an actual examination of those interesting spots 
that witnessed the stupendous occurrences recorded in the 
inspired volume. Or, if there be in existence any cause 
which could effectually counteract such natural and laudable 
feelings, it is the excessive minuteness of detail and fanci- 
ful description usually found to accompany the exhibition 
of sacred relics. The Christian traveller is delighted when 
he obtains the first glance of Carmel, of Tabor, of Libanus, 
and of Olivet ; his heart opens to many touching recollec- 
tions at the moment when the Jordan, the Lake of Tibe- 
rias, and even the waters of the Dead Sea spread them- 
selves out before his eyes ; but neither his piety nor his be- 
lief is strengthened when he has presented to him a portion 
of the cross whereon our Saviour was suspended, the nails 
that pierced his hands and feet, the linen in which his body 
was wrapped, the stone on which his corpse reposed in the 
sepulchre, as well as that occupied by the ministering angel 
on the morning of the resurrection. The skepticism with 
which such doubtful remains cannot fail to be examined 
is turned into positive disgust when the guardians of 
the grotto at Bethlehem undertake to show the water 
wherein the infant Messiah was washed, the milk of the 
blessed Virgin his mother, the swaddling-clothes, the man- 
ger, and other particulars neither less minute nor less im- 
probable. 

But such abuses, the fruit of many ages of credulity and 

* Chateaubriand Itineraire, tome i. p. 48, &c. Sozom. lib, iii. c. i. 
Euseb, Hist. EccLlib. vi. S. Cyril, Cat.xvi, 

c 



26 



INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS. 



ignorance, do not materially diminish the force of the im» 
pression produced by scenes which no art can change, and 
hardly any description can disguise. The hills still stand 
round about Jerusalem, as they stood in the days of David 
and of Solomon. The dew falls on Hermon, the cedars 
grow on Libanus, and Kishon, that ancient river, draws its 
stream from Tabor as in the times of old. The Sea of 
Galilee still presents the same natural accompaniments, the 
fig-tree springs up by the wayside, the sycamore spreads 
its branches, and the vines and olives still climb the sides 
of the mountains. The desolation which covered the Cities 
of the Plain is not less striking at the present hour than 
when Moses with an inspired pen recorded the judgment 
of God ; the swellings of Jordan are not less regular in 
their rise than when the Hebrews first approached its banks ; 
and he who goes down from Jerusalem to Jericho still incurs 
the greatest hazard of falling among thieves. There is, in 
fact, in the scenery and manners of Palestine, a perpetuity 
that accords well with the everlasting import of its historical 
records, and which enables us to identify with the utmost 
readiness the local imagery of every great transaction. 

The extent of this remarkable country has varied at dif- 
ferent times, according to the nature of the government 
which it has either enjoyed or been compelled to acknow- 
ledge. When it was first occupied by the Israelites, the 
land of Canaan, properly so called, was confined between 
the shores of the Mediterranean and the western bank of 
the Jordan ; the breadth at no part exceeding fifty miles, 
while the length hardly amounted to three times that space. 
At a later period, the arms of David and of his immediate 
successor carried the boundaries of the kingdom to the 
Euphrates and Orontes on the one hand, and in an opposite 
direction to the remotest confines of Edom and Moab. The 
population, as might be expected, has undergone a similar 
variation. It is true that no particular in ancient history 
is liable to a better-founded suspicion than the numerical 
statements which respect nations and armies ; for pride and 
fear have, in their turn, contributed not a little to exaggerate, 
in rival countries, the amount of the persons capable of 
taking a share in the field of battle. Proceeding on the 
usual grounds of calculation, we must infer, from the num- 
ber of warriors whom Moses conducted through the desert, 



INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS. 27 



that the Hebrew people, when they crossed the Jordan, did 
not fall short of two millions ; while, from facts recorded 
in the book of Samuel, we may conclude with greater con- 
fidence that the enrolment made under the direction of Joab 
must have returned a gross population of five millions and 
a half. 

The present aspect of Palestine, under an administration 
where every thing decays and nothing is renewed, can afford 
no just criterion of the accuracy of such statements. Hasty 
observers have indeed pronounced that a hilly country des- 
titute of great rivers could not, even under the most skilful 
management, supply food for so many mouths. But this 
precipitate conclusion has been vigorously combated by the 
most competent judges, who have taken pains to estimate 
the produce of a soil under the fertilizing influence of a sun 
which may be regarded as almost tropical, and of a well- 
regulated irrigation which the Syrians knew how to practise 
with the greatest success. Canaan, it must be admitted, 
could not be compared to Egypt in respect to corn. There 
is no Nile to scatter the riches of an inexhaustible fecundity 
over its valleys and plains. Still it was not without reason 
that Moses described it as " a good land, a land of brooks 
of water, of fountains, and depths that spring out of valleys 
and hills ; a land of wheat, and barley, and vines, and fig- 
trees, and pomegranates ; a land of oil-olive and honey ; a 
land wherein thou shalt eat bread without scarceness, thou 
shalt not lack any thing in it ; a land whose stones are iron, 
and out of whose hills thou mayst dig brass."* 

The reports of the latest travellers confirm the accuracy 
of the picture drawn by this divine legislator. Near Jericho 
the wild olives continue to bear berries of a large size, which 
give the finest oil. In places subjected to irrigation, the 
same field, after a crop of wheat in May, produces pulse in 
autumn. Several of the trees are continually bearing 
flowers and fruit at the same time, in all their stages. The 
mulberry, planted in straight rows in the open field, is fes- 
tooned by the tendrils of the vine. If this vegetation seems 
to languish or become extinct during the extreme heats, — 
jf in the mountains it is at ail seasons detached and inter- 
rupted, — such exceptions to the general luxuriance are not 



* Deuteronomy viii. 7, 8 } 9, 



28 



INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS 



to be ascribed simply to the general character of all hot cli- 
mates, but also to the state of barbarism in which the great 
mass of the present population is immersed. 

Even in our day, some remains are to be found of the 
walls which the ancient cultivators built to support the soil 
on the declivities of the mountains ; the form of the cisterns 
in which they collected the rain-water ; and traces of the 
canals by which this water was distributed over the fields. 
These labours necessarily created a prodigious fertility 
under an ardent sun, where a little moisture was the only 
requisite to revive the vegetable world. The accounts given 
by native writers respecting the productive qualities of Ju- 
dea are not in any degree opposed even by the present 
aspect of the country. The case is exactly the same with 
some islands in the Archipelago ; a tract, from which a 
hundred individuals can hardly draw a scanty subsistence, 
formerly maintained thousands in affluence. Moses might 
justly say that Canaan abounded in milk and honey. The 
flocks of the Arabs still find in it a luxuriant pasture, while 
the bees deposite in the holes of the rocks their delicious 
stores, which are sometimes seen flowing down the surface. 

The opinions just stated in regard to the fertility of 
ancient Palestine receive an ample confirmation from the 
Roman historians, to whom, as a part of their extensive 
empire, it was intimately known. Tacitus, especially, in 
language which he appears to have formed for his own use, 
describes its natural qualities with the utmost precision, and, 
as is his manner, suggests rather than specifies a catalogue 
of productions, the accuracy of which is verified by the 
latest observations. The soil is rich, and the atmosphere 
dry ; the country yields all the fruits which are known in 
Italy, besides balm and dates.* 

But it has never been denied that there is a remarkable 
difference between the two sides of the ridge which forms 
the central chain of Judea. On the western acclivity, the 
soil rises from the sea towards the elevated ground in four 
distinct terraces, which are covered with an unfading ver- 

* Terra finesque, qua ad Orientem vergunt, Arabia terminal! tur; a 
meridie iEgyptus objacet ; ab occasu Phcenices et. mare ; septemtrionem 
a latere Syriae ionge prospectant. Corpora hominum salubria et ferentia 
laborem: rari imbres, uber solum : fruges nostrum ad morem; preter- 
que eas balsamum et palmae. Hist, lib. v. c, 6. 



INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS. 29 



dure. The shore is lined with mastic-trees, palms, and 
prickly pears. Higher up, the vines, the olives, and the 
sycamores amply repay the labour of the cultivator ; natu- 
ral groves arise, consisting of evergreen oaks, cypresses, 
andrachnes, and turpentines. The face of the earth is em- 
bellished with the rosemary, the cytisus, and the hyacinth. 
In a word, the vegetation of these mountains has been com- 
pared to that of Crete. European visiters have dined under 
the shade of a lemon-tree as large as one of our strongest 
oaks, and have seen sycamores, the foliage of which was 
sufficient to cover thirty persons along with their horses 
and camels. 

On the eastern side, however, the scanty coating of mould 
yields a less magnificent crop. From the summit of the 
hills a desert stretches along to the Lake Asphaltites, pre- 
senting nothing but stones and ashes, and a few thorny 
shrubs. The sides of the mountains enlarge, and assume 
an aspect at once more grand and more barren. By little 
and little the scanty vegetation languishes and dies ; even 
mosses disappear, and a red burning hue succeeds to the 
whiteness of the rocks. In the centre of this amphitheatre 
there is an arid basin, enclosed on all sides with summits 
scattered over with a yellow-coloured pebble, and affording 
a single aperture to the east, through which the surface of 
the Dead Sea and the distant hills of Arabia present them- 
selves to the eye. In the midst of this country of stones, 
encircled by a wall, we perceive extensive ruins, stunted 
cypresses, bushes of the aloe and prickly pear, while some 
huts of the meanest order, resembling whitewashed sepul- 
chres, are spread over the desolated mass. This spot is 
Jerusalem.* 

This melancholy delineation, which was suggested by 
the state of the Jewish metropolis in the third century, is 
not quite inapplicable at the present hour. The scenery of 
external nature is the same, and the general aspect of the 
venerable city is very little changed. But as beauty is 
strictly a relative term, and is everywhere greatly affected 
by association, we must not be surprised when we read in 

* Belon, Observations de Singularites, p. 140. Hassel qui st's Travels, 
p. 56. Korte's Travels in Palestine. Chateaubriand, les Martyrs, vol. 
iii. p. 99. Schultze's Travels, vol. ii. p. 86. 

C2 

\ \ 



80 INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS. 



the works of eastern authors the high encomiums which 
are lavished upon the vicinity of the holy capital. Abul- 
feda, for example, maintains, not only that Palestine is the 
most fertile part of Syria, but also that the neighbourhood 
of Jerusalem is one of the most fertile districts of Palestine. 
In his eye, the vines, the fig-trees, and the olive-groves, 
with which the limestone cliffs of Judea were once covered, 
identified themselves with the richest returns of agricultural 
wealth, and more than compensated for the absence of 
those spreading fields waving with corn which are neces- 
sary to convey to the mind of a European the ideas of 
fruitfulness, comfort, and abundance. 

Following the enlightened narrative of Malte Brun, the 
reader will find that southward of Damascus, the point 
where the modern Palestine may be said to begin, are the 
countries called by the Romans Auranitis and Gaulonitis, 
consisting of one extensive and noble plain, bounded on 
the north by Hermon or Djibel-el- Sheik, on the south-west 
by Djibel-Edjlan, and on the east by Haouran. In all 
these countries there is not a single stream which retains 
its water in summer. The most of the villages have their 
pond or reservoir, which they fill from one of the wadi, or 
brooks, during the rainy season. Of all these districts, 
Haouran is the most celebrated for the culture of wheat. 
Nothing can exceed in grandeur the extensive undulations 
of their fields, moving like the waves of the ocean in the 
wind. Bothin or Batanea, on the other hand, contains 
nothing except calcareous mountains, where there are vast 
caverns, in which the Arabian shepherds live like the ancient 
Troglodytes. Here a modern traveller, Dr. Seetzen, dis- 
covered, in the year 1816, the magnificent ruins of Gerasa, 
now called Djerash, where three temples, two superb am- 
phitheatres of marble, and hundreds of columns still remain 
among other monuments of Roman power. But by far the 
finest thing that he saw was a long street, bordered on each 
side with a splendid colonnade of Corinthian architecture, 
and terminating in an open space of a semicircular form, 
surrounded with sixty Ionic pillars. In the same neighbour- 
hood the ancient Gilead is distinguished by a forest of 
stately oaks, which supply wealth and employment to the 
inhabitants. Peraea presents on its numerous terraces a 
mixture of vines, olives, and pomegranates. Karak-Moab* 



INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS. 



31 



the eapital of a district corresponding to that of the primi- 
tive Moabites, still meets the eye, but is not to be con- 
founded with another town of a similar name in the Stony* 
Arabia.* 

The countries now described lie on the eastern side of 
the river Jordan. But the same stream, in the upper part 
of its course, forms the boundary between Gaulonitis and 
the fertile Galilee, which is identical with the modern dis- 
trict of Szaffad. This town, which is remarkable for the 
beauty of its situation amid groves of myrtle, is supposed to 
be the ancient Bethulia, which was besieged by Holofernes. 
Tabaria, an insignificant place, occupies the site of Tibe- 
rias, which gave its name to the lake more generally known 
by that of Genesareth, or the Sea of Galilee ; but industry 
has now deserted its borders, and the fisherman with his 
skiff and his nets no longer animates the surface of its 
waters. Nazareth still retains some portion of its former 
consequence. Six miles farther south stands the hill of 
Tabor, sometimes denominated Itabyrius, presenting a 
pyramid of verdure crowned with olives and sycamores. 
From the top of this mountain, the modern Tor and scene 
of the transfiguration, we look down on the river Jordan, 
the Lake of Genesareth, and the Mediterranean Sea,f 

Galilee, says a learned writer, would be a paradise were 
it inhabited by an industrious people under an enlightened 
government. Vine stocks are to be seen here a foot and a 
half in diameter, forming, by their twining branches, vast 
arches and extensive ceilings of verdure. A cluster of 
grapes, two or three feet in length, will give an abundant 
supper to a whole family. The plains of Esdraelon are 
occupied by Arab tribes, around whose brown tents the 
sheep and lambs gambol to the sound of the reed, which at 
nightfall calls them hornet 

For some years this fine country has groaned and bled 
under the malignant genius of Turkish despotism. The 
fields are left without cultivation, and the towns and vil- 
lages are reduced to beggary ; but the latest accounts from 

* Seetzen, in Annales des Voyages, i. .398 ; and Correspon dance de 
M. Zach. 425. 

t Maundrell, p. 60. 

t Chateaubriand Itineraire, ii. 123, Malte Brun, vol. ii. 150—160. 
■Edin. Edition. 



32 INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS 



the Holy Land encourage us to entertain the hope, that a 
milder administration will soon change the aspect of affairs, 
and bestow upon the Syrian provinces at large some of the 
benefits which the more liberal policy of Mohammed Ali 
has conferred upon the pashalic of Egypt. 

Proceeding from Galilee towards the metropolis, we enter 
the land of Samaria, comprehending the modern districts 
of Areta and Nablous. In the former we find the remains 
of Cesarea ; and on the Gulf of St. Jean d'Acre stands the 
town of Caypha, where there is a good anchorage for ships. 
On the south-west of this gulf extends a chain of mountains, 
which terminates in the promontory of Carmel, a name 
famous in the annals of our religion. There Elijah proved 
by miracles the divinity of his mission ; and there, in the 
middle ages of the church, resided thousands of Christian 
devotees, who sought a refuge for their piety in the caves 
of the rocks. Then the mountain was wholly covered with 
chapels and gardens, whereas at the present day nothing 
is to be seen but scattered ruins amid forests of oak and 
olives, the bright verdure being only relieved by the white- 
ness of the calcareous cliffs over which they are suspended. 
The heights of Carmel, it has been frequently remarked, 
enjoy a pure and enlivening atmosphere, while the lower 
grounds of Samaria and Galilee are obscured by the densest 
fogs. 

The Shechem of the Scriptures, successively known by the 
names of Neapolis and Nablous, still contains a consider- 
able population, although its dwellings are mean and its 
inhabitants poor. The ruins of Samaria itself are now 
covered with orchards ; and the people of the district, who 
have forgotten their native dialect, as well perhaps as their 
angry disputes with the Jews, continue to worship the 
Peity on the verdant slopes of Gerizim. 

Palestine, agreeably to the modern acceptation of the 
term, embraces the country of the ancient Philistines, the 
most formidable enemies of the Hebrew tribes prior to the 
reign of David. Besides Gaza, the chief town, we recog- 
nise the celebrated port of Jaffa or Yaffa, corresponding to 
the Joppa mentioned in the Sacred Writings, Repeatedly 
fortified and dismantled, this famous harbour has presented 
guch a variety of appearances, that the description given of 



INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS. 



S3 



it in one age has hardly ever been found to apply to its 
condition in the very next. 

Bethlehem, where the divine Messias was born, is a large 
village inhabited promiscuously by Christians and Mussul- 
mans, who agree in nothing but their detestation of the 
tyranny by which they are both unmercifully oppressed. 
The locality of the sacred manger is occupied by an elegant 
church, ornamented by the pious offerings of all the nations 
of Europe. It is not our intention to enter into a more 
minute discussion of those old traditions, by which the par- 
ticular places rendered sacred by the Redeemer's presence 
are still marked out for the veneration of the faithful. They 
present much vagueness, mingled with no small portion of 
unquestionable truth. At all events, we must not regard 
them in the same light in which we are compelled to view 
the story that claims for Hebron the possession of Abra- 
ham's tomb, and attracts on this account the veneration 
both of Nazarenes and Moslems. 

To the north-east of Jerusalem, in the large and fertile 
valley called El-(jaur, and watered by the Jordan, we find 
the village of Rah, the ancient Jericho, denominated by 
Moses the City of Palms. This is a name to which it is 
still entitled ; but the groves of opobalsamum, or balm of 
Mecca, have long disappeared ; nor is the neighbourhood 
any longer adorned with those singular flowers known 
among the Crusaders by the familiar appellation of Jericho 
roses. A little farther south two rough and barren chains 
of hills encompass with their dark steeps a long basin formed 
in a clay soil mixed with bitumen and rock-salt. The w r ater 
contained in this hollow is impregnated with a solution of 
different saline substances, having lime, magnesia, and soda 
for their base, partially neutralized with muriatic and sul- 
phuric acid. The salt which it yields by evaporation is 
about one-fourth of its weight. The bituminous matter 
rises from time to time from the bottom of the lake, floats 
on the surface, and is thrown out on the shores, where it is 
gathered for various economical purposes. It is to be re- 
gretted that this inland sea has not yet been examined with 
the attention which it deserves. We are told, indeed, by 
the greater number of those who have visited it, that neither 
fish nor shells are to be found in its waters ; that an un- 
wholesome vapour is constantly emitted from its bosom ; 



34 



INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS, 



and that its banks, hideous and desolate in the extreme, are 
never cheered by the note of any bird. But it is admitted 
by the same travellers, that the inhabitants are not sensible 
of any noxious qualities in its exhalations ; while the ac- 
counts formerly believed, that the winged tribes in attempt- 
ing to fly over it fell down dead, are now generally regarded 
as fabulous. Tradition supports the narrative of Sacred 
Scripture so far as to teach that the channel of the Dead 
Sea was once a fertile valle} r , partly resting on a mass of 
subterranean water, and partly composed of a stratum of 
bitumen ; and that a fire from heaven kindling these com- 
bustible materials, the rich soil sunk into the abyss beneath, 
and Sodom and Gomorrah were consumed in the tre- 
mendous conflagration. 

o 

This brief outline of the geographical limits and physical 
characters of the Holy Land may prove sufficient as an 
introduction to its ancient history. Details much more 
ample are to be found in numerous works, whose authors, 
fascinated by the interesting recollections which almost 
every object in Palestine is fitted to suggest, have endea- 
voured to transfer to the minds of their readers the profound 
impressions which they themselves experienced from a per- 
sonal review of ancient scenes and monuments. But we 
purposely refrain at present from the minute description to 
which the subject so naturally invites us, because, in a sub- 
sequent part of our undertaking, we shall be unavoidably 
led into a train of local particularities, while setting forth 
the actual condition of the country and of its venerable re- 
mains. Meantime, we supply, in the following table, the 
means of comparing the division or distribution of Canaan 
among the Twelve Tribes, with that which was afterward 
adopted by the Romans, 

Ancient 

Canaanitish Division. Israelitish Division. Soman Division. 

Sidonians, Tribe of Asher (in Libanus) ) 

» T , \ Naphtali (north-west of the > Upper Galilee. 

Unknown, | Lake of Genesareth) S 

Perizzites, Zebulun (west of that lake) } 

( Is%achar (Valley of Esdraelon, } Lower Galilee, 
ine same, ^ Mount Tabor) S 

w . . 5 Half-tribe of Manasseh (Dora ) 

* livue8 > \ and Cesarea) V Samaria, 

The same, Ephrairn (Shechem, Samaria) ) 



HISTORY OF THE HEBREW COMMONWEALTH. 35 



Ancient 

CanaanitUh Division. Israelitish Division. Roman Division. 

Jebusites, Benjamin (Jericho, Jerusalem) "] 

Amorites, Hittites,. . . Judah (Hebron, Judea proper) 1 Judea.. 

.. S Simeon (south-west of Judah) f 

Philistines,-.... jDan(Joppa) J 

Moabites, Reuben (Peraea, Heshbon) ^ 

Ammonites, Gilead, . . Gad (Decapolis, Ammonitis) I 

Trr. * „ , \ Half-tribeof Manasseh, Gaul- ( t>„ 

Kingdom of Bashan, j onitiSj Batanea> j Per»* 

In a pastoral country, such as that beyond the river Jor* 
dan especially, where the desert in most parts bordered upon 
the cultivated soil, the limits of the several possessions could 
not at all times be distinctly marked. It is well known, 
besides, that the native inhabitants were never entirely ex- 
pelled by the victorious Hebrews, but that they retained, in 
some instances by force, and in others by treaty, a consider- 
able portion of land within the borders of all the tribes, — a 
fact which is connected with many of the defections and 
troubles into which the Israelites subsequently fell. 



CHAPTER II. 

History of the Hebrew Commonwealth* 

Form of Government after the Death of Joshua — In Egypt — in the Wil* 
derness — Princes of Tribes and Heads of Families — Impatience to take 
Possession of Promised Land— The Effects of it — Renewal of War — 
Extent of Holy Land — Opinions of Fleury, Spanheim, Reland, and 
Low man — Principle of Distribution — Each Tribe confined to a separate 
Locality— Property unalienable — Conditions of Tenure— Population 
of the Tribes— Number of Principal Families— A General Govern- 
ment or Natural Council— The Judges— Nature of their Authority— 
Not ordinary Magistrates— Different from Kings, Consuls, and Dic- 
tators — Judicial Establishments — Judges and Officers— Described by 
Josephus — Equality of Condition among the Hebrews — Their Inclina- 
tion for a Pastoral Life— Freebooters, like the Arabs — Abimelech, Jeph- 
thah, and David— Simplicity of the Times — Boaz and Ruth — Tribe of 
Levi— Object of their Separation — The learned Professions heredi- 
tary, after the manner of the Egyptians — The Levitical Cities — Their 
Number and Uses— Opinion of Michaelis — Summary View of the 
Times and Character of the Hebrew Judges. 

Learned men have long exercised their ingenuity with 
the view of determining the precise form of the social con- 
dition which was assumed by the Israelites when they took 



36 



HISTORY OF THE 



possession of the Promised Land. The sacred writer con* 
tents himself with stating, that " it came to pass a long 
time after the Lord had given rest unto Israel from all their 
enemies round about, that Joshua waxed old and stricken 
in age ; and he called for all Israel, for their elders, and for 
their heads, and for their judges, and for their officers." 
The purport of the address he delivered on this occasion, 
and which is given at length in the twenty-third chapter of 
the book which bears his name, was solely to remind them 
of their religious obligations as the chosen people of Jeho- 
vah, and of the labours that they had yet to undergo in subdu- 
ing the remainder of Canaan. Neither in this speech, nor 
in the exhortation with which he afterward at Shechem en- 
deavoured to animate the zeal and constancy of hi$ followers, 
did he make any allusion to the form of government that it 
behooved them to adopt ; declining even to direct their choice 
in the appointment of a chief, who might conduct their 
armies in the field, and preside in the deliberations of the 
national council. 

The first events which occurred after the demise of Joshua 
appear to establish the fact, that to every tribe was com- 
mitted the management of its own affairs, even to the extent 
of being entitled to wage war and make peace without the 
advice or sanction of the general senate. The only govern- 
ment to which the sons of Jacob had hitherto been accus- 
tomed, was that most ancient and universal system of rule 
which gives to the head of every family the direction and con- 
trol of all its members. We find traces of this natural sub- 
ordination among them, even under the pressure of Egyptian 
bondage. During the negotiations which preceded their 
deliverance under the ministry of Moses, the applications 
and messages were all addressed to the patriarchal rulers 
of the people. " Go gather the elders of Israel together," 
was the command of Jehovah to the son of Amram, when 
the latter received authority to rescue the descendants of 
Isaac from the tyranny of Pharaoh. 

But during the pilgrimage in the wilderness, and more 
particularly when the tribes approached the confines of the 
devoted nations of Canaan, the original jurisdiction of the 
family chiefs was rendered subordinate to the military power 
of their inspired leader, who, as the commander of the 
armies of Israel, was esteemed and obeyed by his followers 



HEBREW COMMONWEALTH. 



87 



as the lieutenant of the Lord of Hosts. In truth, the mar- 
ial labours to which his office called him, placed the suc- 
cessor of Moses at the head of his countrymen in quality 
of a general, guiding them on their march or forming their 
array in the field of battle, rather than as a teacher of wis- 
dom or the guardian of a peculiar faith and worship. Until 
the conquered lands were divided among the victorious 
tribes, Joshua was a soldier and nothing more ; while, on 
the other hand, the congregation of the Hebrews, who 
seconded so well his military plans, appear at that juncture 
on the page of history in no other light than that of veteran 
troops, rendered hardy by long service in a parching climate, 
and formidable by the arts of discipline under a skilful and 
warlike leader. 

From the exode, in short, till towards the end of Joshua's 
administration, we lose sight of that simple scheme of do- 
mestic superintendence which Jacob established among his 
sons. The princes of tribes, and the heads of families^ 
were converted into captains of thousands, of hundreds, 
and of fifties ; regulating their movements by the sound of 
the trumpet, and passing their days of rest amid the vigi- 
lance and formality of a regular encampment. But no sooner 
did they convert the sword into a ploughshare, and the spear 
into a pruning-hook, than they unanimously returned to 
their more ancient form of society. As soon as there ap- 
peared a sufficient quantity of land wrested from the Canaan- 
ites to afford to the tribes on the western side of the Jor- 
dan a competent inheritance, Joshua " sent the people 
away, and they departed ;" and from this moment the mili- 
tary aspect that their community had assumed gave way 
to the patriarchal model, to which in fact all their institu- 
tions bore an immediate reference, and to the restoration of 
which their strongest hopes and wishes were constantly 
directed. 

Actuated by such views, it cannot be denied that the He- 
brews manifested an undue impatience to enjoy the fruits 
of their successful invasion. They had fought, it should 
seem, to obtain an inheritance in a rich and pleasant coun- 
try, rather than to avenge the cause of pure religion, or to 
punish the idolatrous practices of the children of Moab and 
Ammon. As soon, therefore, as the fear of their name and 
the power of their arms had scattered the inhabitants of the 

D 



88 



HISTORY OT THE 



open countries, the Israelites began to sow and to plant % 
being more willing to make a covenant with the residue of 
the enemy, than to purchase the blessings of a permanent 
peace by enduring a little longer the fatigue and privations 
of war. Their eagerness to get possession of the land flow- 
ing with milk and honey seems to have compelled Joshua 
to adopt a measure, which led at no distant period to much 
guilt and suffering on the part of his people. He consented 
that they should occupy the vacant fields before the nations 
which they had been commissioned to displace were finally 
subdued ; that they should cast lots for provinces which 
were still in the hands of the native Gentiles ; and that they 
should distribute, by the line and the measuring-rod, many 
extensive hills and fair valleys which had not yet submitted 
to the dominion of their swords. 

The effects of this injudicious policy soon rendered them- 
selves apparent ; and all the evils which were foreseen by 
the agred servant of God, when he addressed the conp-re- 
gation at Shechem, were realized in a little time to their 
fullest extent. The Hebrews did indeed find the remnant 
of the nations among whom they consented to dwell proving 
scourges in their sides and thorns in their eyes, and still 
able to dispute with them the possession of the good land 
which they had been taught to regard as a sacred inherit- 
ance conferred upon them in virtue of a divine promise 
made to their fathers. For example, the author of the book 
of Judges relates, " the Amorites forced the children of Dan 
into the mountains ;" for, he adds, " they would not suffer 
them to come down to the valley." Hence arose the fact, 
that the Israelites did not for several hundred years com- 
plete their conquest of Palestine. The Canaanites, re- 
covering from the terror which had fallen upon them in the 
commencement of the Hebrew invasion, attempted, not only 
to regain possession of their ancient territory, but even to 
obliterate all traces of their defeat and subjection. What 
movements were made by the petty sovereigns of the coun- 
try, in order to effect their object, we are nowhere expressly 
told ; but we find, from a consultation held by the southern 
tribes of Israel, soon after the death of Joshua, that the 
necessity of renewing military operations against the na- 
tives could no longer be postponed. It was resolved, ac- 
cordingly, that Judah and Simeon should unite their arms, 



HEBREW COMMONWEALTH. 



as 



and take the field, to prevent, in the first place, an inroad 
with which their borders were threatened, and, subse- 
quently, to reduce to a state of entire subjection the cities 
and towns that stood within the limits of their respective 
districts. "And Judah said unto Simeon his brother, 
come up with me into my lot, that we may fight against 
the Canaanites ; and I likewise will go with thee into thy 
lot."* 

But, leaving these preliminary matters, we shall proceed 
to take a survey of the Hebrew commonwealth, as it ap- 
peared upon its first settlement under the successors of 
Joshua ; endeavouring to ascertain the grounds upon which 
the federal union of the tribes was established ; their rela- 
tions towards one another in peace and in war ; the re- 
sources of which they were possessed for conquest or self- 
defence ; their civil rights and privileges as independent 
states ; their laws and judicatories ; and, above all, the na- 
ture and extent of their property, as well as the tenure on 
which it was held by families and individuals. Closely con- 
nected with this subject is a consideration of that agrarian 
law which was sanctioned by Moses and acted upon by 
Joshua, and which will be found, not only to have deter- 
mined, but also to have secured, the inheritance of every 
Israelite who entered the Promised Land. 

The extent of that portion of Syria which was granted to 
the Hebrew nation has been variously estimated. On the 
authority of Hecatseus, a native of Abdera, who is quoted 
by Josephus, the limits of the territory possessed by the 
Jews are fixed at three millions of acres, supposing the 
aroura of the Greeks to correspond to the denomination of 
English measure just specified. Proceeding on this ground, 
the Abbe Fleury and other writers have undertaken to prove 
that the quantity of land mentioned by Hecatseus would 
maintain only three millions three hundred and seventy 
five thousand men, — a computation which is liable to many 
objections, and has not therefore been generally received. 
It is obvious, for instance, that the Abderite, who lived in 
the reign of Alexander the Great, and is said to have after- 
ward, attached himself to- the person of the first Grecian 
king of Egypt, described the country of the Jews as he saw it? 

* Judges L 3. 



40 



HISTORY OF THE 



under the dominion of the Syrian princes of the Macedonian 
line. He accordingly beheld only the inheritance of the two 
tribes which had returned from the Babylonian captivity, and 
of consequence confined his estimates to the provinces that 
they were permitted to enj®y ; taking no account of those 
extensive districts that formerly belonged to the Ten Tribes 
of Israel, and which, in his days, were in the hands of that 
mixed race of men who were descended from the Assyrian 
colonists whom Shalmaneser placed in their room.* 

Confiding in the greater accuracy of Spanheim, Reland, 
and Lowman, we are inclined to compute the Hebrew ter- 
ritory at about fifteen millions of acres ; assuming, with 
these writers, that the true boundaries of the Promised 
Land were, Mount Libanus on the north, the Wilderness 
of Arabia on the south, and the Syrian Desert on the east. 
On the west some of the tribes extended their posses- 
sions to the very waters of the Great Sea, though on other 
parts they found their boundary restricted by the lands of 
the Philistines, whose rich domains comprehended the low 
lands and strong cities w T hich stretched along the shore. It 
has been calculated by Spanheim, that the remotest points 
of the Holy Land, as possessed by King David, were situ- 
ated at the distance of three degrees of latitude, and as 
many degrees of longitude, including in all about twenty- 
six thousand square miles. f 

If this computation be correct, there was in the possession 
of the Hebrew chiefs land sufficient to allow to every 
Israelite capable of bearing arms a lot of about twenty 
acres ; reserving for public uses, as also for the cities of the 
Levites, about one-tenth of the whole. It is probable, how- 
ever, that if we make a suitable allowance for lakes, moun- 
tains, and unproductive tracts of ground, the portion to 
every householder would not be so large as the estimate 
now stated. But within the limits of one-half of this quan- 
tity of land there were ample means for plenty and frugal 
enjoyment. The Roman people under Romulus and long 
after could afford only two acres to every legionary soldier ; 
and in the most flourishing days of the commonwealth the 

* Joseph, contra Apion. cap. 1. 2 Kings xvii. 24. 
t Reland, Palestina Illustrata, lib. ii. c. 5. Spanheim, Charta terra 
Israelis. Lowman on the Civil Government of the Hebrews. 



HEBREW COMMONWEALTH. 



41 



allowance did not exceed four. Hence the quatuor jugera, 
or four acres, is an expression which proverbially indicated 
plebeian affluence and contentment, — a full remuneration 
for the toils of war, and a sufficient inducement at all times 
to take up arms in defence of the republic. 

The territory of the Hebrews was ordered to be equally 
divided among their tribes and families according to their 
respective numbers ; and the persons selected to super- 
intend this national work were Eleazar, the high-priest, 
Joshua, who acted in the character of judge, and the twelve 
princes or heads of Israel. The rule which they followed 
is expressed in these words, — " And ye shall divide the land 
by lot, for an inheritance among your families ; and to the 
more ye shall give the more inheritance ; and to the fewer 
ye shall give the less inheritance : every man's inheritance 
shall be in the place where his lot falleth ; according to the 
tribes of your fathers ye shall inherit." 

Every tribe was thus put in possession of a separate dis- 
trict or province, in which all the occupiers of the land were 
not only Israelites, but more particularly sprung from the 
same stock, and descendants of the same patriarch. The 
several families, again, were placed in the same neighbour- 
hood, receiving their inheritance in the same part or sub- 
division of the tribe ; or, to use the language of Lowman, 
each tribe may be said to have lived together in one and the 
same county, and each family in one and the same hundred ; 
so that every neighbourhood were relations to each other 
and of the same families, as well as inhabitants of the same 
place. 

To secure the permanence and independence of every 
separate tribe, a law was enacted by the authority of 
Heaven, providing that the landed property of every Israelite 
should be unalienable. Whatever encumbrances might 
befall the owner of a field, and whatever rmVht be the ob- 
ligations under which he placed himself to his creditor, 
he was released from all claims at the year of jubilee. 
" Ye shall hallow," said the inspired legislator, " the fiftieth 
year, and proclaim liberty throughout all the land unto all 
the inhabitants thereof. It shall be a jubilee unto you, and 
ye shall return every man to his possession, and ye shall 
return every man unto his family. And the land shall not 

D 2 



42 



HISTORY OF THE 



be sold for ever ; for the land is mine, saith the Lord ; for 
ye are strangers and sojourners with me."* 

The attentive reader of the Mosaical law will observe, 
that though a Hebrew could not divest himself of his land 
in perpetuity, he could dispose of it so far as to put another 
person in possession of it during a certain number of years ; 
reserving to himself and his relations the right of redeeming 
it, should they ever possess the means ; and having at all 
events the sure prospect of a reversion at the period of the 
jubilee. In the eye of the lawgiver this transaction was not 
regarded as a sale of the land, but merely of the crops for a 
stated number of seasons. It might indeed have been con- 
sidered simply as a lease, had not the owner, as well as his 
nearest kinsman, enjoyed the privilege of resuming occu- 
pation whenever they could repay the sum for which the 
temporary use of the land had been purchased, f 

The houses which wers built in fields or villao-es were, in 
regard to the principle of alienation, placed on the same foot- 
ing as the lands themselves ; being redeemable at all times, 
and destined to return to their original owners in the year 
of jubilee. But, on the contrary, houses in cities and large 
towns were, when sold, redeemable only during one year; 
after which the sale was held binding for ever. There was 
indeed an exception in this case in favour of the Levites, 
who could at any time redeem " the houses of the cities of 
their possession," and who, moreover, enjoyed the full ad- 
vantage of the fiftieth year. 

The Hebrews, like most other nations in a similar state 
of society, held their lands on the condition of military 
service. The grounds of exemption allowed by Moses 
prove clearly that every man of competent age was bound 
to bear arms in defence of his country,— a conclusion 
which is at once strikingly illustrated and confirmed by the 
conduct of the Senate or Heads of Tribes, in the melan- 
choly war undertaken by them against the children of 
Benjamin. Upon a muster of the confederated army at 
Mizpeh, it was discovered that no man had been sent from 
Jabesh-gilead to join the camp ; whereupon it was imme- 
diately resolved that twelve thousand soldiers should be 
despatched to put all the inhabitants of that town to mili- 



* Lev. xxv. 23. f Lev. xxv. 24-28. 



HEBREW COMMONWEALTH. 



43 



tary execution. And the congregation commanded them, 
saying, Go and smite Jabesh-gilead with the edge of the 
sword, with the women and children ; and the only reason 
assigned for this severe order was, that "when the people 
were numbered, there were none of the men of Jabesh- 
gilead there."* 

The reader will now be prepared to accompany us while 
we make a few remarks on the civil constitution of the 
Hebrews, both as it respected the government of the 
several tribes viewed as separate bodies, and as it applied 
to that of the whole nation as a confederated republic. 

The tribes of Israel, strictly speaking, amounted only to 
twelve, descended from the twelve sons of Jacob. But as 
the posterity of Joseph was divided into two tribes, it fol- 
lows that the host which entered the Land of Canaan under 
Joshua comprehended thirteen of these distinct genealogies. 
Viewed in reference to merely secular rights and duties, 
however, the offspring of Levi having no part nor lot with 
their brethren, are not usually reckoned in the number ; 
while on other grounds, and chiefly an invincible propensity 
to idolatrous usages, the tribe of Dan at a later period was 
sometimes excluded from the list. In the twenty-sixth 
chapter of the book of Numbers, we have an account of 
the enrolment which was made on the plains of Moab ; 
from which the numerical strength of the eleven secular 
tribes may be exhibited as follows : — 

Joseph (including Ephraim and Manasseh) 85,200 



Judah 76,500 

Issachar 64,300 

Zebulun 60,500 

Asher 53,400 

Dan 46,400 

Benjamin 45,600 

Naphtali 45,400 

Reuben 43,730 

Gad 40,500 

Simeon 22,200 



This catalogue comprehended all the men above twenty 
years of age, to which may be added 23,000 of the tribe 
of Levi, " all males from a month old and upward : for 



• Judges xxi. 8-13. 



44 



HISTORY OF THE 



they were not numbered among the children of Israel, be- 
cause there was no inheritance given them among the chil- 
dren of Israel." The whole amounted to six hundred and 
six thousand seven hundred.* 

In every tribe there was a chief called the Prince of the 
Tribe, or the Head of Thousands ; and under him were 
the Princes of Families, or Commanders of Hundreds. 
For example, we find that at the muster which was made 
of the Hebrews in the Wilderness of Sinai, Nahshon, the 
son of Amminadab, was Prince of the Tribe of Judah. 
This tribe, again, like all the others, was divided into several 
families ; the term being used here not in its ordinary ac- 
ceptation, to signify a mere household, but rather in the 
heraldic sense, to denote a lineage or kindred descended 
from a common ancestor, and constituting the main branches 
of an original stock. In this respect the Israelites were 
guided by the same principle which regulates precedency 
among the Arabs, as well as among our own countrymen 
in the Highlands of Scotland. 

It appears, moreover, that a record of these families, of 
the households in each, and even of the individuals belong- 
ing to every household, was placed in the hands of the 
chief ruler ; for it is related that, on the "suspicion excited 
with regard to the spoils of Jericho and the discomfiture at 
Ai, " Joshua brought Israel by their tribes, and the tribe 
of Judah was taken ; and he brought the family of Judah, 
and he took the family of the Zarhites ; and he brought 
the family of the Zarhites man by man, and Zabdi was 
taken ; and he brought his household man by man, and 
Achan, the son of Carmi, the son of Zabdi, the son of 
Zerah, of the tribe of Judah, was taken."t 

We may collect from the twenty-sixth chapter of the 
book of Numbers, that the Heads of Families, at the time 
the children of Israel encamped on the eastern bank of 
the Jordan, were in number fifty-seven. If to these we add 
the thirteen Princes, the Heads of Tribes, the sum of the 
two numbers will be seventy ; whence there is some ground 
for the conjectures of those who allege, that the council 
which Moses formed in the Wilderness consisted of the 
patriarchal chiefs, who in right of birth were recognised 

* Numbers xxvi. 62. f Joshua vii. 16, 17, 18. 



HEBREW COMMONWEALTH. 



45 



as bearing an hereditary rule over the several sections of the 
people. 

It is probable that the first-born of the senior family of 
each tribe was usually received as the prince of that tribe, 
and that the eldest son of every subordinate family suc- 
ceeded his father in the honours and duties which belonged 
to the rank of a patriarch. But the sacred narrative pre- 
sents too few details to permit us to form with confidence 
any general conclusions in regard to this point. The case 
of Nahshon, besides, has been viewed as an instance quite 
irreconcilable with such an opinion ; and it certainly seems 
to prove, that if the Prince of the Tribe was not elective, 
he was not always, at least, the direct descendant of the 
original chief. Nahshon, as has just been stated, was the 
son of Amminadab, the son of Ram, who was a younger 
son of Hezron the son of Pharez, who was a younger son 
of Judah.* 

From the particulars now stated, we find that every tribe 
had a head who presided over its affairs, administered jus- 
tice in all ordinary cases, and led the troops in time of war. 
He was assisted in these important duties by the subordi- 
nate officers, the Chiefs of Families, who formed his council 
in such matters of policy as affected their particular dis- 
trict, supported his decisions in civil or criminal inquiries, 
and finally commanded under him in the field of battle. 

But the polity established by the Jewish lawgiver was 
not confined to the constitution and government of the 
separate tribes. It likewise extended its regulations to the 
common welfare of the whole, as one kingdom under the 
special direction of Jehovah ; and provided that on all great 
occasions they should have the means of readily uniting 
their counsels and their strength. Even during the less 
orderly period which immediately followed the settlement 
of the Hebrews in the land of their inheritance, we find 
traces of such a general government ; a national senate, 
whose deliberations guided the administration of affairs in 
all cases of difficulty or hazard ; a judge, who was invested 
with a high degree of executive authority as the first magis- 
trate of the commonwealth ; and lastly, the controlling 
voice of the congregation of Israel, whose concurrence ap- 



* 1 Chron. il 10, 11. 



46 



HISTORY OF THE 



pears to have been at all times necessary to give vigour and 
effect to the resolutions of their leaders. To these con- 
stituent parts of the Hebrew government we may add the 
Oracle or voice of Jehovah, without whose sanction, as 
revealed by Urim and Thummim, no measure of importance 
could be adopted either by the council or by the judge. 

It has been justly remarked, at the same time, that how- 
ever extensive the power might be which was committed 
to the supreme court of the nation, and how much soever 
the authority of a military judge among the Israelites 
resembled that of a Roman dictator, the privilege of making 
laws was at no period intrusted to any order of the Jewish 
state. As long as the Hebrews were governed by a the- 
ocracy, this essential prerogative was retained by the Divine 
Head of the nation. " Now therefore hearken, O Israel, 
unto the statutes, and unto the judgments, which I teach 
you, for to do them, that ye may live, and go in and pos- 
sess the land which the Lord God of your fathers giveth 
you. Ye shall not add unto the word which I command 
you, neither shall ye diminish aught from it, that ye may 
keep the commandments of the Lord your God which I 
command you."* 

It is the opinion of learned men, that the Council of 
Seventy, established by Moses in the Wilderness, was only 
a temporary appointment, and did not continue after the 
Hebrews were settled in the Land of Canaan. The only 
national assembly of which we can discover any trace sub- 
sequently to that event, is the occasional meeting of the 
Princes of Tribes and Chiefs of Families to transact busi- 
ness of great public importance. Thus, in the case of the 
war against Benjamin, of which we have a full account in 
the book of Judges, we are informed that the heads " of 
all the tribes, even of all the tribes of Israel, presented 
themselves in the assembly of the people of God." On 
that memorable occasion, the interests and character of 
the whole Hebrew commonwealth were at stake ; for which 
reason the natural leaders of the tribes gathered themselves 
together at the head of their kinsmen and followers, — even 
four hundred thousand men that drew the sword, — in order 

* Deut. iv. 1, 2 ; xii. 32. " Hoc igitur argumento maximo est ; juris 
illius majestatis quod in legibus ferendis est positum, nihil quicquam 
penes hominem fuisse." — Conringius de Repub. Heb. 



HEBREW COMMONWEALTH. 47 

to consult with one another, and to adopt such measures as 
might be deemed most suitable for punishing the atrocities 
which had been committed at Gibeah. 

During the period to which this part of our narrative 
refers, the supreme power among the Hebrews was occa- 
sionally exercised by judges, — -an order of magistrates to 
which nothing similar is to be found in any other country. 
The Carthaginians, indeed, had a description of rulers, 
whose names, being derived from the same oriental term, 
appear to establish some resemblance in their office to that 
of the successors of Joshua. But it will be found upon a 
comparison of their authority, both in its origin and the 
purposes to which it was meant to be subservient, that the 
Hebrew judges and the suffites of Carthage had very little 
in common. Nor do we find any closer analogy in the du- 
ties of a Grecian archon or of a Roman consul. These 
were ordinary magistrates, and periodically elected ; where- 
as, the judge was never invested with power except when 
the exigencies of public affairs required the aid of extraor- 
dinary talents or the weight of a supernatural appointment. 
On this account the Hebrew commander has been likened 
to the Roman dictator, who, when the commonwealth was 
in danger, was intrusted with an authority almost unlimited, 
and with a jurisdiction which extended to the lives and for- 
tunes of nearly all his countrymen. But in one important 
particular this similarity fails. The dictator laid down his 
office as soon as the crisis which called for its exercise had 
passed away ; and in no circumstances was he entitled to 
retain such unwonted supremacy beyond a limited time. 
The judge, on the other hand, remained invested with his 
high authority during the full period of his life, and is 
therefore usually described by the sacred historian as pre- 
siding to the end of his days over the tribes of Israel, amid 
the peace and security which his military skill, aided by the 
blessing of Heaven, had restored to their land.* 

The Hebrew judges, says Dupin, were not ordinary ma- 
gistrates, but men raised up by God, on whom the Israelites 
bestowed the chief government, either because they had de- 
livered them from the oppressions under which they groaned, 

* Livii Hist. lib. xxviii. 37 ; lib, xxx. 7, Bochart, Geog. Sacra, part u. 
lib. ii. 34, 



48 



HISTORY OF THE 



or because of their prudence and equity. They ruled ac- 
cording to the law of Jehovah, commanded their armies, 
made treaties with the neighbouring princes, declared war 
and peace, and administered justice. They were different 
from kings, — 

1. In that they were not established either by election 
or succession, but elevated to power in an extraordinary 
manner. 

2. In that they refused to take upon them the title and 
quality of king. 

3. In that they levied no taxes upon the people for the 
maintenance of government. 

4. In their manner of living, which was very far from the 
pomp and ostentation of the regal state. 

5. In that they could make no new laws, but governed 
according to the statutes contained in the Books of Moses. 

6. In that the obedience paid to them by the people was 
voluntary and unforced, being at most no more than consuls 
and magistrates of free cities.* 

But it is less difficult to determine what the judges were 
not than to ascertain with precision the various parts of their 
complicated office. In war, they led the host of Israel to 
meet their enemies ; and in peace, it is probable they pre- 
sided in such courts of judicature as might be found neces- 
sary for deciding upon intricate points of law, or for hearing 
appeals from inferior tribunals. Those who went up to 
■ Deborah for judgment had, we may presume, brought their 
causes in the first instance before the judges of their respect- 
ive cities ; and it was only, perhaps, in cases where greater 
knowledge and a higher authority were required to give 
satisfaction to the litigants that the chief magistrate of the 
republic, aided by certain members of the priesthood, was 
called upon to pronounce a final decision. 

It belongs to this part of the subject to mention the pro- 
vision made by Moses, and established by Joshua, for the 
due administration of justice throughout the land. " Judges 
and officers," said the former, " shalt thou make thee in all 
thy gates which the Lord thy God giveth thee ; and they 
shall judge the people with just judgment. Thou shalt not 
wrest judgment ; thou shalt not respect persons, neither 

* Complete History of the Canon, book i. c. 3. 



HEBREW COMMONWEALTH. 



49 



take a gift ; for a gift doth blind the eyes of the wise and 
pervert the words of the righteous." To the same purpose 
Josephus relates, in his account of the last address delivered 
by Moses to the Hebrew people, that this great legislator 
gave instructions to appoint seven judges in every city, men 
who had distinguished themselves by their good conduct and 
impartial feelings. Let those who judge, he adds, be per- 
mitted to determine according as they shall think right, un- 
less any one can show that they have taken bribes to the 
perversion of justice, or can allege any other accusation 
against them.* 

Between the "judges" and the "officers" nominated by 
the Jewish lawgiver there was no doubt a marked distinc- 
tion ; though from the remote antiquity of the appointment 
and the obscure commentaries of the rabbinical writers it 
has become extremely difficult to define the limits of their 
respective functions. Maimonides asserts, that in every 
city where the number of householders amounted to a hun- 
dred and twenty there was a court consisting of twenty- 
three judges, who were empowered to determine in almost 
all cases both civil and criminal. This is unquestionably 
the same institution which is mentioned by Josephus in the 
fourth book of his Antiquities, and described by him as 
being composed of seven judges and fourteen subordinate 
officers, or assistants, selected from among the Levites ; for 
these, with the president and his deputy, make up the sum 
of twenty-three specified by the Jewish writers. In smaller 
towns, the administration of law was intrusted to three 
judges, whose authority extended to the determination of 
all questions respecting debt, theft, rights of inheritance, 
restitution, and compensation. Though they could not in- 
flict capital punishments, they had power to visit minor 
offences with scourging and fines, according to the nature 
of the delinquency and the amount of the injury sus- 
tained.! 

Of the former of these judicial establishments, there were 
two fixed at Jerusalem even during the period that the San- 
hedrim of Seventy was invested with the supreme authority 
over the lives and fortunes of their countrymen, one of which 

* Deut. xvi. 18, 19. Joseplms's Antiquities, book iv. 8. 
t Reland. Antiq. Sac. Pars, ii. c. 7 

E 



50 



HISTORY OF THE 



sat in the gate of Shusan, and the other in that of Nicanor. 
The place where these judges held their audience was, as 
Cardinal Fleury remarks, the gate of the city ; for as the 
Israelites were all husbandmen who went out in the morning 
to their work, and did not return till the evening, the gate 
of the city was the place where they most frequently met ; 
and we must not be astonished to find that the people la- 
boured in the fields and dwelt in the towns. These were 
not cities like our provincial capitals, which can hardly sub- 
sist on what is supplied to them by twenty or thirty leagues 
of the surrounding soil. They were the habitations for as 
many labourers as were necessary to cultivate the nearest 
fields ; hence, as the country was very populous, the towns 
were very thickly scattered. For a similar reason among 
the Greeks and Romans, the scene of meeting for all mat- 
ters of business was the market-place, or forum, because 
they were all merchants.* Among the Jews, the judges 
took their seats immediately after morning prayers, and con- 
tinued till the end of the sixth hour, or twelve o'clock ; and 
their authority, though not in capital cases, continued to be 
respected by the Israelites long after Jerusalem was levelled 
with the ground.f 

With the aid of the particulars stated above, the reader 
may have been enabled to form some notion of the civil and 
political circumstances of the ancient Hebrews. They en- 
joyed the utmost degree of freedom that was consistent with 
the objects of regular society, acknowledging no authority 
but that of the laws as administered by the elders of their 
tribes and the heads of their families. The equality of their 
property, too, and the sameness of their occupations, pre- 
cluded the rise of those distinctions in social life which, 
whatever may be their use in older nations, are opposed by 
all the habits of a people whose sole cares are yet devoted to 
the culture of their fields and the safety of their flocks. The 
form of government which suits best with such a distribu- 
tion of wealth and employment is unquestionably that which 
was established by Moses on the basis of the ancient patri- 
archal rule. But it is worthy of notice, that this model, so 
convenient in the earliest stage of social existence, was 
imperceptibly changed by the increasing power and intelli- 



* Fleury, Mceurs des Israelites, xxv. f Lewis, Orig. Heb. lib. i. 6. 



HEBREW COMMONWEALTH. 



51 



gence of the people at large, until, as happened towards the 
close of Samuel's administration, the public voice made 
itself be heard, recommending an entire departure from ob- 
solete notions. Thus we find, in the progress of the human 
race, that the simple authority of the family-chief passes 
through a species of oligarchy into a practical democracy, 
and ends at no very distant period in the nomination of an 
hereditary sovereign. 

The epoch at which we now contemplate the Hebrew 
community is that very interesting one when the wandering 
shepherd settles down into the stationary husbandman. 
The progeny of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, who themselves 
were pastoral chiefs, appear to have retained a decided pre- 
dilection for that ancient mode of life. Moses, even after he 
had brought the twelve tribes within sight of the promised 
land, found it necessary to indulge the families of Reuben, 
Gad, and Manasseh so far as to give them the choice of a 
settlement beyond the Jordan, where they might devote 
themselves to the keeping of cattle. From the conduct also 
of the other tribes, who showed no small reluctance to di- 
vide the land and enter upon their several inheritances, it 
has been concluded, with considerable probability, that they 
too would have preferred the erratic habits of their ances- 
tors to the more restricted pursuits which their great law- 
giver had prepared for them amid cornfields, vineyards, and 
plantations of olives. " And Joshua said unto the children 
of Israel, How long are ye slack to go to possess the land 
which the Lord God of your fathers hath given you?"* 

Among the Arabs, even at the present day, the pastoral 
life is accounted more noble than that which leads to a resi- 
dence in towns, or even in villages. They think it, as At- 
vieux remarks, more congenial to liberty ; because the man 
who with his herds ranges the desert at large will be far 
less likely to submit to oppression than people with houses 
and lands. This mode of thinking is of great antiquity in 
the eastern parts of the world. Diodorus Siculus, when 
speaking of the Nabathaeans, relates, that they were by their 
laws prohibited from sowing, planting, drinking wine, and 
building houses ; every violation of the precept being pun- 

* Michaelis's Commentaries on the Laws of Moses, art. 44 ; and 
Joshua xviii, 3. 



52 



HISTORY OF THE 



ishable with death. The reason assigned for this very sin- 
gular rule is, their belief that those who possess such things 
will be easily brought into subjection by a tyrant ; on which 
account they continue, says the historian, to traverse the 
desert, feeding their flocks, which consist partly of camels 
and partly of sheep. 

The fact now stated receives a remarkable confirmation 
from the notice contained in the book of Jeremiah respect- 
ing the Rechabites, who, though they had for several ages 
been removed from Arabia into Palestine, persevered in a 
sacred obedience to the command of their ancestor, refus- 
ing to build houses, sow land, plant vineyards, or drink 
wine, but resolving to dwell in tents throughout all their 
generations. 

In regard to these points, the Hebrews, in the early age 
at which we are now considering them, appear to have en- 
tertained sentiments not very different from those of the 
Arabs, from whose sandy plains they had just emerged. 
The life of a migratory shepherd, too, has a very close alli- 
ance with the habits of a freebooter ; and the attentive 
reader of the ancient history of the Israelites will recollect 
many instances wherein the descendants of Isaac gave ample 
proof of their relationship to the posterity of Ishmael. The 
character of Abimelech, the son of Gideon, for example, 
cannot be viewed in any other light than that of a captain 
of marauders. The men of Shechem, whom he had hired 
to follow him, refused not to obey his commands, even when 
he added murder to robbery. Jephthah, in like manner, 
when he was thrust out by his brethren, became the chief 
of a band of freebooters in the land of Tob. " And there 
were gathered vain men to Jephthah, and went out with 
him." But the elders of Gilead, did not on that account 
regard their brave countryman as less worthy to assume the 
direction of their affairs, and to be head over all the inhabit- 
ants of their land, — an honour which he even hesitated to 
accept when compared with the rank and emolument of 
the less orderly situation which they requested him to relin- 
quish. 

Nor did David himself think it unsuitable to his high 
prospects to have recourse for a time to a predatory life. 
When compelled to flee from the presence of Saul, he took 
refuge in the cave of Adullam ; " and every one that was 



HEBREW COMMONWEALTH. 



53 



m distress, and every one that was in debt, and every one 
that was discontented gathered themselves unto him, and 
he became a captain over them." It has been suggested, 
indeed, that the son of the Bethlehemite employed his arms 
against such persons only as were enemies to the Hebrews. 
But there is no good ground for this distinction. His con- 
duct to Nabal, whose possessions were in Carmel, proves, 
that when his camp was destitute of provisions he deemed 
it no violation of honour to force a supply for the wants of 
his men, even from the stores of a friendly house. We may 
judge, moreover, of the character of his followers, as well 
from the remonstrance that was made by the parsimonious 
rustic to whom he sent them, as from the effect which a re- 
fusal produced upon their ardent tempers. " Who is Da- 
vid 1 and who is the son of Jesse ] There be many serv- 
ants now-a-days that break away every man from his 
master. Shall I then take my bread, and my water, and my 
flesh that I have killed for my shearers, and give it unto 
men whom I know not whence they be] — So David's young 
men turned their way, and went again, and told him all 
those sayings. And David said unto his men, Gird ye on 
every man his sword. And they girded on every man his 
sword, and David also girded on his sword : and there went 
up after David about four hundred men, and two hundred 
abode by the stuff."* 

It is manifest, that in the simple condition of society to 
which our attention is now directed, the profession of a 
freebooter was not in any sense accounted dishonourable. 
The courage and dexterity which such a life requires stand 
high in the estimation of tribes who are almost constantly 
in a state of war ; and hence, in reading the history of the 
ancient Israelites, we must form an opinion of their man- 
ners and principles, not according to the maxims of an en- 
lightened age, but agreeably to the habits, pursuits, and 
mental cultivation which belonged to their own times. 

It is farther worthy of remark, that during the period of 
the Hebrew judges there is not the slightest trace of those 
distinctions of rank which spring from mere wealth, office, 
or profession. From the princes of Judah down to the 
meanest family in Benjamin, all were agriculturists or shep- 



* 1 Samuol xxv. 4-14. 
E 2 



54 



HISTORY OF THE 



herds, driving their own oxen, or attending in person to 
their sheep and their goats. The hospitable Ephraimite, 
who received into his house at Gibeah the Levite and his 
unfortunate companion, is described as " an old man coming 
from his work out of the field at even." Gideon, again, 
was thrashing his corn with his own hands when the angel 
announced to him that he was selected by Divine Providence 
to be the deliverer of his people. Boaz was attending his 
reapers in the field when his benevolence was awakened in 
favour of Ruth, the widow of his kinsman. When Saul 
received the news of the danger which threatened the in- 
habitants of Jabesh-gilead, he was in the act of " coming 
after the herd out of the field." Sovereign as he was, he 
thought it not inconsistent with his rank to drive a yoke of 
oxen. Every one knows that David was employed in keep- 
ing the sheep when he was summoned into the presence of 
Samuel to be anointed king over Israel ; and even when he 
was upon the throne, and had by his talents and bravery 
extended at once the power and the reputation of his coun- 
trymen among the neighbouring nations, the annual occupa- 
tion of sheep-shearing called his sons and his daughters 
into the hill country to take their share in its toils and 
amusements. In point of blood and ancestry, too, every 
descendant of Jacob was held on the same footing ; and the 
only ground of pre-eminence which one man could claim 
over another was connected with old age, wisdom, strength, 
or courage, — the qualities most respected in the original 
forms of civilized life.* 

We have been the more careful to collect these fragments 
of personal history, because it is chiefly from them that the 
few rays of light are reflected which illustrate the state of 
society at the era of the Hebrew commonwealth. That the 
times in which the judges ruled were barbarous and unset- 
tled is rendered manifest, not less by the general tenor of 
events, than by the qualities which predominated in the 
public mind during the long period that elapsed between 
the death of Joshua and the reign of Solomon. These no- 
tices also convey to us some degree of information, in regard 
to the political relations which subsisted among the Syrian 
tribes prior to the commencement of the regal government 



* Judges vi. 12. 2 Samuel xiii. 23, 24. 



HEBREW COMMONWEALTH. 



55 



at Jerusalem. The wars which were carried on at that 
remote epoch seem not to have been waged with any view to 
permanent conquest, or even to territorial aggrandizement, 
but merely to revenge an insult, to exact a ransom, or to 
abstract slaves and cattle. The history of the judges sup- 
plies no facts which would lead us to infer that during any of 
the servitudes, which for their repeated transgressions were 
inflicted on the Hebrews, their lands were taken from them, 
or their cities destroyed by their conquerors. It was not 
till a later age that a more systematic plan of conquest 
was formed by the powerful princes who governed beyond 
the Euphrates and on the banks of the Nile, and who, not 
content with the uncertain submission of tributaries, re- 
solved to reduce the Israelites for ever to the condition of 
subjects or of bondmen. 

The account which has been given of the political con- 
stitution of the ancient Jews would not be complete were we 
to omit all notice of the tribe of Levi, the duties and reve- 
nues of which were fixed by peculiar laws. It may, per- 
haps, be thought by some readers, that this institution rested 
on a basis altogether spiritual ; but, upon suitable inquiry, 
it will be found that the Levitical offices comprehended a 
great variety of avocations, much more closely connected 
with secular life than with the ministry of the tabernacle, 
or with the services which were due to the priesthood. 
This sacred tribe, indeed, supplied to the whole nation of 
the Israelites their judges, lawyers, scribes, teachers, and 
physicians ; for Moses, in imitation of the Egyptians, in 
whose wisdom he was early and deeply instructed, had 
thought proper to make the learned professions hereditary 
in the several families of Levi's descendants. 

We find, in the first chapter of the book of Numbers, a 
command issued by the authority of Heaven to separate 
the tribe now mentioned from the rest of their brethren, 
and not to enrol them among those who were to engage 
in war. It was determined, on similar grounds, that the 
Levites were to have no inheritance in the land like the 
other tribes, but were to receive from their kinsmen, in 
name of maintenance, a tenth part of the gross produce of 
their fields and vineyards. The occupations for which they 
were set apart were altogether incompatible with the pur- 
suits of agriculture or the feeding of cattle. It was deemed 



56 



HISTORY OF THE 



expedient, therefore, that they should be relieved from the 
cares and toil connected with the possession of territorial 
estates, and devote their whole attention to the service of 
the altar and the instruction of the people. 

To effect these wise purposes, it was necessary that the 
members of this learned body should not be confined to one 
particular district, but that they should be distributed among 
all the other tribes, according to the extent of their several 
inheritances and the amount of their population. With this 
view the law provided that a certain number of cities should 
be set apart for them, together with such a portion of soil 
as might seem requisite for their comfort and more imme- 
diate wants. " Command the children of Israel, that they 
give unto the Levites, of the inheritance of their posses- 
sion, cities to dwell in ; and ye shall give unto the Levites 
suburbs for the cities round about them. And ye shall 
measure from without the city, on the east side, two thou- 
sand cubits, and on the south side two thousand cubits, 
and on the west side two thousand cubits, and on the north 
side two thousand cubits ; and the city shall be in the 
midst : this shall be to them the suburbs of the cities. So 
all the cities which ye shall give to the Levites shall be forty 
and-eight cities ; them shall ye give with their suburbs."* 

It was not till after the conquest and division of Canaan 
that the provisions of this enactment were practically ful- 
filled. When the other tribes were settled in their respect- 
ive possessions, the children of Levi reminded Joshua of 
the arrangement made by his predecessor, and claimed cities 
to dwell in, and suburbs for their cattle. The justice of 
their appeal being admitted, the Levitical stations were dis- 
tributed as follows, — 

Cities. 

In the tribes of Judah, Simeon, and Benjamin 13 

In Ephraim, Dan, and the half-tribe of Manasseh,. . 10 
In the other half-tribe of Manasseh, Issachar, Asher, 

and Naphtali, 13 

In Zebulun, Reuben, and Gad, 12 

48 

Every reader of the Bible is aware, that six of these 
cities were invested with the special right of affording 



* Numbers xxxv. 2, 5, 7. 



HEBREW COMMONWEALTH. 



57 



refuge and protection to a certain class of criminals. The 
Jewish doctors maintain that this privilege, somewhat lim- 
ited, belonged to all the forty-eight ; for, being sacred, no 
act of revenge or mortal retaliation was permitted to take 
place within their gates. Into the six cities of refuge, pro- 
perly so called, the manslayer could demand admittance, 
whether the Levites were disposed to receive him or not ; 
and on the same ground he was entitled to gratuitous lodg- 
ing and maintenance, until his cause should be determined 
by competent judges. It is added, that they could exercise 
a discretionary power as to the reception of a homicide into 
any other of their cities, and even in respect to the hire 
which they might demand for the house used by him during 
his temporary residence. But the institution of Moses, af- 
terward completed by Joshua, affords no countenance to 
these rabbinical distinctions; and we have no reason 
whatever to believe that the benefit of asylum was granted 
to any Levitical town besides Hebron, Shechem, Ramoth, 
Bezer, Kedesh, and Golan.* 

As learning and the several professions connected with 
the knowledge of letters were confined almost exclusively 
to the tribe of Levi, the distribution of its members through- 
out the whole of the Hebrew commonwealth was attended 
with many advantages. Every Levitical city became at 
once a school and a seat of justice. There the language, 
the traditions, the history, and the laws of their nation 
were the constant subjects of study, pursued with that zeal 
and earnestness which can only arise from the feeling of a 
sacred obligation, combined with the impulse of an ardent 
patriotism. Within their walls were deposited copies of 
their religious, moral, and civil institutions ; which it was 
their duty not only to preserve, but to multiply. They 
kept, besides, the genealogies of the tribes ; in which they 
marked the lineage of every family who could trace their 
descent to the father of the faithful. Being carefully in- 
structed in the law, and possessed of the annals of their 
people from the earliest days, they were well qualified to 
supply the courts with magistrates and scribes, men who 
were fitted not only to administer justice, but also to frame 
a record of all their decisions. It is perfectly clear that, in 



* Joshua xx. 7, 8. Numbers xxxv. 6, 15. Deut. xix. 4, 10 



58 



HISTORY OF THE 



the reign of David and of the succeeding kings, the judges 
and other legal officers were selected from among the . Le- 
vites ; there being in those days not fewer than six thou- 
sand of this learned body who held such appointments. 

Michaelis represents the Levitical law among the He- 
brews in the light of a literary noblesse ; enjoying such a 
degree of wealth and consideration as to enable them to act 
as a counterpoise to the influence of the aristocracy ; while, 
on the other hand, they prevented the adoption of those 
hasty measures which were sometimes to be apprehended 
from the democratical nature of the general government. 
They were not merely a spiritual brotherhood, but profes- 
sional members of all the different faculties ; and by birth 
obliged to devote themselves to those branches of study, for 
the cultivation of which they were so liberally rewarded. 
Like the Egyptian priesthood, they occupied the whole field 
of literature and science ; extending their inquiries to phi- 
losophy, theology, natural history, mathematics, jurispru- 
dence, civil history, and even medicine. Perhaps, too, it 
was in imitation of the sages of the Nile that the Hebrews 
made these pursuits hereditary in a consecrated tribe ; 
whence flowed this obvious advantage, that the sons of the 
Levites, from the very dawn of reason, were introduced to 
scientific researches, and favoured with a regulated system 
of tuition suited to the occupation in which their lives were 
to be spent. In short, the institution bears upon it all the 
marks of that wisdom for which the Mosaical economy is 
so remarkably distinguished, when viewed as the basis of a 
government at once civil, religious, and political.* 

The youngest reader of the Sacred Volume cannot fail 
to have perceived, that the character and government of 
the Hebrew judges withdraw the attention from the ordi- 
nary course of human events, and fix it on the marvellous 
or supernatural. These personages were raised up by the 
special providence of God, to discharge the duties of an 
office which the peculiar circumstances of a chosen people 
from time to time rendered necessary ; and the various 
gifts with which they were endowed, as they constituted the 
main ground of vocation to their high employment, so were 

* Michaelis's Commentaries on the Laws of Moses, vol. i. art. 52. 
Jablonsky Panth. ^Egypt. Prolegomena, 21, 41, 43. 



HEBREW COMMONWEALTH. 



59 



they suited to the difficulties that they had to overcome, 
and to the achievements they were called to perform. The 
sanctity of their manners did not, indeed, in all cases cor- 
respond to the dignity of their station ; and the miracles 
which they wrought for the welfare of their country were 
not always accompanied with self-restraint and the due sub- 
ordination of their passions. Their military exploits were 
worthy of the highest admiration ; while, in some instances, 
their private conduct calls forth only our surprise and re- 
gret. For examples of heroism and bravery, we can with 
confidence point to Gideon, to Samson, and to Jephthah ; 
but there is not in their character anything besides that a 
father could recommend to the imitation of his son, or that 
a lover of order and pureness of living would wish to see 
adopted in modern society. We observe, in the greater 
number of them, uncommon and even supernatural powers 
of body, as well as of mind, united with the gross manners 
and fierce passions of barbarians. We applaud their pat- 
riotism, admire their courage and talent in the field, and 
even share in the delight which accompanied their triumphs; 
yet, when we return to their dwellings, we dare not inspect 
too narrowly the usages of their domestic day, nor examine 
into the indulgences with which they sometimes thought 
proper to remunerate the toils and cares of their public life. 
Divine Wisdom, stooping to the imperfection of human na- 
ture, employed the instruments that were best fitted for the 
gracious ends which, by their means, were about to be ac- 
complished ; though it does not appear to have been in- 
tended that mankind should ever resort to the history of the 
Judges for lessons of decorum, humanity, or virtue. 



60 HISTORICAL OUTLINE FROM SAUL 



CHAPTER III. 

Historical Outline from the Accession of Saul to the Destruc- 
tion of Jerusalem, 

Weakness of Republican Government— Jealousy of the several Tribes 
— Resolution to have a King— Rules for regal Government — Character 
of Saul— Of David — Troubles of his Reign — Accession of Solomon—- 
Erection of the Temple — Commerce — Murmurs of the People — Reho- 
boam — Division of the Tribes — Kings of Israel — Kingdom of Judah 
—Siege of Jerusalem — Captivity — Kings of Judah — Return from 
Babylon — Second Temple — Canon of Scripture — Struggles between 
Egypt and Syria — Conquest of Palestine by Antiochus — Persecution 
of Jews — Resistance by the Family of Maccabasus — Victories of Judas 
— He courts the Alliance of the Romans — Succeeded by Jonathan — 
Origin of the Asmonean Princes— John Hyrcanus— Aristobulus — 
Alexander Jannaeus — Appeal to Pompey — Jerusalem taken by Romans 
— Herod created King by the Romans — He repairs the Temple— Ar- 
chelaus succeeds him, and Antipas is nominated to Galilee — Quirinius 
Prefect of Syria — Pontius Pilate — Elevation of Herod Agrippa — Dis- 
grace of Herod Philip — Judea again a Province — Troubles— Accession 
of Young Agrippa— Felix — Festus— Floris — Command given to Ves- 
pasian—War—Siege of Jerusalem by Titus. 

The weakness and jealousy which seem inseparable from 
a government comprehending a number of independent 
states, had been deeply felt during the administration of 
Eli, and even under that of Samuel in his latter days. 
Established in different parts of the country, the several 
tribes were actuated by local interests and selfish views ; 
those in the north, who were exempted from the hostile 
inroads of the Philistines and Ammonites, refusing to aid 
their brethren, the children of Simeon and Judah, whose 
territory was constantly exposed to the ravages of those 
warlike neighbours. In the time of the more recent 
judges, the federal union on which the Hebrew common- 
wealth was founded appeared practically dissolved. Nay, 
a spirit of rivalry and dissension occasionally manifested 
itself amonjT the kindred communities of which it was com- 
posed ; — Ephraim, stimulated by envy, vexed Judah, and 
Judah vexed Ephraim.* 



* Isaiah xi. 13. 



TO THE DESTRUCTION OF JERUSALEM. 61 



Meanwhile, several powerful kingdoms in the east, as 
well as the south, threatened the independence of the 
Twelve Tribes, especially those on the borders of the desert. 
Assyria had already turned her views towards the fertile 
lands which skirt the shores of the Mediterranean ; and 
Egypt, in order to protect her rich valley from the aggres- 
sions of that rising monarchy, began to open her eyes to 
the expediency of securing the frontier towns in the nearest 
parts of Palestine. In a word, it was fast becoming mani- 
fest that the existence of the Hebrews, as a free and dis- 
tinct people, could only be secured by reviving the union 
which had originally subsisted among their leading families, 
under a form that would combine their physical strength 
and patriotism in the support of a common cause. An 
aged priest, although he might with the utmost authority 
direct the solemnities of their national worship, and even 
administer the laws to which they were all bound to sub- 
mit, could not command the secular obedience of rude 
clans, or, with any prospect of success, lead them to battle 
against an enemy practised in all the stratagems of war. 
The people, therefore, demanded the consent of Samuel to 
a change in the structure of their government, that they 
might have a king, not only to preside over their civil 
affairs, but also to go out before them and fight their battles.* 

The principal reason assigned by the elders of Israel for 
the innovation which they required at the hands of their 
ancient prophet was, that they might be " like all the na- 
tions ;" evidently alluding to the advantages of monarchical 
power, when decisive measures become necessary to defend 
the interests of a state. It is remarkable that Moses had 
anticipated this natural result in the progress of society, 
and even laid down rules for the administration of the regal 
government. This wise legislator provided that the king 
of the Hebrews should not be a foreigner, lest he might be 
tempted to sacrifice the interest of his subjects to the policy 
of his native land, and perhaps to countenance the intro- 
duction of unauthorized rites into the worship of Jehovah. 
It was also stipulated that the sovereign of the chosen 
people should not multiply horses to himself, lest he should 
be carried by his ambition to make war in distant countries ? 



* 1 Samuel viii. 4-21. 

F 



62 HISTORICAL OUTLINE FROM SAUL 



and neglect the welfare of the sacred inheritance promised 
to the fathers of the Jewish nation.* 

The qualities which recommended Saul to the choice of 
Samuel and the approbation of the Tribes, leave no room 
for doubt that it was chiefly as a military leader that the 
son of Kish was raised to the throne. Nor was their ex- 
pectation disappointed in the young Benjaminite, so far as 
courage and zeal were required in conducting the affairs 
of war. But the impetuosity of his character, and a cer- 
tain indifference in regard to the claims of the national 
faith, paved the way for his downfall and the extinction of 
his family. The scene of Gilboa, which terminated the 
career of the first Hebrew monarch, exhibits a most affect- 
ing tragedy ; in which the valour of a gallant chief, con- 
trasted with his despair and sorrow, throws a deceitful 
lustre over an event which the reader feels that he ought 
to condemn. 

David, to the skill of an experienced warrior, added a 
deep reverence for the institutions of his country and the 
forms of Divine worship ; whence he procured the high 
distinction of being a man after God's own heart. To this 
celebrated king was reserved the honour of taking from the 
Jebu sites a strong fortress on the borders of Judah and 
Benjamin, and of laying the foundations of Jerusalem, 
viewed, at least, as the metropolis of Palestine and the seat 
of the Hebrew government. On Mount Zion he built a 
suburb of considerable beauty and strength, which con- 
tinued for many years to bear his name, and to reflect the 
magnificence of his genius. Not satisfied with this acqui- 
sition, he extended his arms on all sides, till the borders 
of his kingdom touched the western bank of the Euphrates 
and the neighbourhood of Damascus. He likewise de- 
feated the Philistines, those restless enemies of the southern 
tribes, and added their dominions to the crown of Israel. 
The Moabites, who had provoked his resentment, were 
subjected to military execution, and deprived of a large 
portion of their land ; an example of severity which, so 
far from intimidating the children of Ammon, only provoked 
them to try the fortune of war against the victorious mon- 
arch. David despatched an army under the comro'iad of 



* Deut. xvii. 14-20. 



TO THE DESTRUCTION OF JERUSALEM. 63 



the irascible Joab, who, after worsting them in the field, 
inflicted a tremendous chastisement upon the followers of 
Hanun, for having studiously insulted the ambassadors of 
his master.* 

But the splendour of this reign was afterward clouded 
by domestic guilt and treason ; and the nation, which 
could now have defied the power of its bitterest enemies, 
was divided and rendered miserable by the foul passions 
that issued from the royal palace. Still, notwithstanding 
the rebellion of Absalom, and the defection of certain mili- 
tary leaders, David bequeathed to his successor a flourish- 
ing- kingdom ; rapidly advancing in the arts of civilized 
life, enjoying an advantageous commerce, the respect of 
neighbouring states, and a decided preponderance among 
the minor governments of Western Asia. His last years 
were spent in making preparations for the building of a 
temple at Jerusalem, — a work that he himself was not 
allowed to accomplish, because his hands were stained with 
blood, which, however justly shed, rendered them unfit for 
erecting an edifice to the God of mercy and peace. f 

The success which had attended • the arms of his father 
rendered the accession of Solomon tranquil and secure, so 
far, at least, as we consider the designs of the surrounding 
nations. Accordingly, finding himself in possession of 
quiet as well as of an overflowing treasury, he proceeded 
to realize the pious intentions of David in regard to the 
house of God, and thereby to obey the last commands 
which had been imposed upon him before he had received 
the crown. The chief glory of Solomon's administration 
is identified with the erection of the Temple. Nor were 
the advantages arising from this great undertaking confined 
to the spiritual objects to which it was principally subser- 
vient. On the contrary, the necessity of employing foreign 
artists, and of drawing part of his materials from a distance, 
suggested to the king the benefits of a regular trade ; and 
as the plains of Syria produced more corn than the natives 
could consume, he supplied the merchants of Tyre and 
the adjoining ports with a valuable commodity, in return 
for the manufactured goods which his own subjects could 

* 2 Samuel viii. 1, 2. 1 Chron. xviii. 1, 2 ; xix. 1-20, 
f 1 Chron. xxii. 8, 



64 HISTORICAL OUTLINE FROM SAUL 



not fabricate. It was in his reign that the Hebrews first 
became a commercial people ; and although we must admit 
that considerable obseurity still hangs over the tracks of 
navigation which were pursued by the mariners of Solomon, 
there is no reason to doubt that his ships were to be seen 
on the Mediterranean, the Red Sea, and the Persian 
Gulf.* 

But the popularity of his government did not keep pace 
with the rapidity of his improvements or the magnificence 
of his works. Perhaps the vast extent of his undertakings 
may have led to unusual demands upon the industry of 
his people, and given occasion to those murmurs which 
could hardly be repressed even within the precincts of the 
court. Like his predecessor, too, he occasionally failed to 
illustrate, in his own conduct, the excellent precepts that 
he propounded for the direction of others ; and towards the 
close of his life, particularly, the wisdom of his moral les- 
sons was strangely contrasted with the practical follies 
which stand recorded against him in the inspired narrative. 
He totally disregarded the leading principles of the consti- 
tution constructed by Moses and left for the guidance of all 
Hebrew kings ; not only multiplying horses even to the 
extent of maintaining a large body of cavalry, and marry- 
ing many wives who turned away his heart, but proceeding 
so far as to give his countenance to idolatrous worship 
within sight of the very Temple which he had conse 
crated to Jehovah, the God of all the earth.f 

It was in this reign that the limits of Jewish power 
attained their utmost reach, comprehending even the re- 
markable district of Palmyrene, a spacious and fertile 
province in the midst of a frightful desert. There were in 
it two principal towns, Thapsacus and Palmyra, from the 
latter of which the whole country took its name. Solomon, 
it is well known, took pleasure in adding to its beauty and 
strength, as being one of his main defences on the eastern 
border ; and hence it is spoken of in Scripture as Tadmor 
in the wilderness.- Josephus calls it Thadamor ; the 
Seventy recognise it under the name of Theodmor and 
Thedmor ; while the Arabs and Syrians at the present day 
keep alive the remembrance of its ancient glory as Tadmor, 

* 2 Chron. ii. and ix. throughout. 1 1 Kings xi. 1-8. 



TO THE DESTRUCTION OF JERUSALEM. 65 



Tadmier, and Tatmor. But of Solomon's labours not one 
vestige now remains. The inhabitants having revolted from 
the Emperor Aurelian, and pledged their faith to an adven- 
turer called Antiochus, or Achilles, who had assumed the 
purple, this splendid town was attacked and razed to the 
ground. Repenting of his hasty determination, the Roman 
prince gave orders that Palmyra should be immediately 
rebuilt ; but so inefficient were the measures which he 
adopted, or so imperfectly was he obeyed in their execution, 
that the city in the desert has ever since been remarkable 
only as a heap of magnificent ruins. The first object that 
now presents itself to the traveller who approaches this 
forlorn place, is a castle of mean architecture and uncertain 
origin, about half an hour's walk from it, on the north side. 
"From thence," says Mr. Maundrell, "we descry Tadmor, 
enclosed on three sides by long ridges of mountains ; but 
to the south is a vast plain which bounds the visible horizon. 
The barren soil presents nothing green but a few palm 
trees. The city must have been of large extent, if we may 
judge from the space now taken up by the ruins ; but as 
there are no traces of its walls, its real dimensions and form 
remain equally unknown. It is now a deplorable spectacle, 
inhabited by thirty or forty miserable families, who have 
built huts of mud within a spacious court which once en- 
closed a magnificent heathen temple."* 

The despotism exercised by Solomon created a strong 
reaction, which was immediately felt on the accession of his 
son Rehoboam. This prince, rejecting the advice of his 
aged counsellors, and following that of the younger and 
more violent, soon had the misfortune to see the greater 
part of his kingdom wrested from him. In reply to the 
address of his people, who entreated an alleviation of their 
burdens, he declared, that instead of requiring less at their 
hands he should demand more. " My father made your 
yoke heavy, I will add to your yoke ; my father chastised 
you with whips, but I will chastise you with scorpions." 
Such a resolution, expressed in language at once so con- 
temptuous and severe, alienated from his government ten 
tribes, who sought a more indulgent master in Jeroboam, a 
declared enemy of the house of David. Hence the origin 

* Maundrell's Journey from Aleppo to Jerusalem in 1697. 

F2 



66 HISTORICAL OUTLINE FROM SAUL 



of the kingdom of Israel, as distinguished from that of 
Judah ; and hence, too, the disgraceful contentions between 
these kindred states, which acknowledged one religion, and 
professed to be guided by the same law. Arms and nego- 
tiation proved equally unavailing, in repeated attempts 
which were made to reunite the Hebrews under one sceptre ; 
till, at length, about two hundred and seventy years after 
the death of Solomon, the younger people were subdued by 
Shalmaneser, the powerful monarch of Assyria, who carried 
them away captive into the remoter provinces of his vast 
empire.* 

Our plan does not admit a minuter detail of the sacred 
history than may be readily found in the pages of the Old 
Testament. Suffice it therefore to observe, that Jerusalem 
soon ceased to be regarded by the Israelites as the centre 
of their religion, and the bond of union among the descend- 
ants of Abraham. 

Jeroboam had erected in his kingdom the emblems of a 
less pure faith, to which he confined the attention of his 
subjects ; while the frequent wars that ensued, and the 
treaties formed on either side with the Gentile nations on 
their respective borders, soon completed the estrangement 
which ambition had begun. Little attached to the native 
line of princes, the Israelites placed on the throne of Sa- 
maria a number of adventurers, who had no qualities to 
recommend them besides military courage and an irrecon- 
cilable hatred towards the more legitimate claimants of the 
house of David. The following list will give a condensed 
view of the names, the order, and the length of the reigns 
which belong to the sovereigns of Israel, from the demise 
of Solomon down to the extinction of their kingdom by the 
arms of Assyria : — 



Years. B. C. 



1. Jeroboam 

2. Nad ad 

3. Raasha 

4. Ela 

5. Zimri and Omri . 

6. Ahab 

7. Ahaziah 

8. Jehoram or Joram 

9. Jehu 



22 990 
. 2 968 

23 966 

1 943 

11 942 
22 931 

2 909 

12 907 
28 895 



* 2 Kings xrii. 1-7. 



TO THE DESTRUCTION OF JERUSALEM, 67 



Years. B. C. 



10. Jehoahaz 17 867 

11. Jehoash or Joash 16 850 

12. Jeroboam II. 41 834 

1st Interregnum 22 793 

13. Zechariah and Shallum 1 771 

14. Menahem 10 770 

15. Pekahiah 2 760 

16. Pekak 20 758 

2d Interregnum * 10 738 

17. Hoshea 9 728 



Samaria taken 271 719 



It appears to have escaped the notice of the greater num- 
ber of commentators, that the separation of interests, which 
in the days of Rehoboam produced a permanent division of 
the tribes, had manifested itself at a much earlier period. 
In truth, it is extremely doubtful whether the union and 
co-operation between the northern and the southern com- 
munities, which was meant to be accomplished by the in- 
stitution of monarchy, were ever cordial or efficient. There 
is no doubt, at least, that the two parties differed essentially 
in their choice of a successor to Saul ; for, while the people 
of Judah invited David to the supreme power as their 
anointed sovereign, the suffrages of Israel were unanimous 
m favour of Ishbosheth, the son of the deceased king. We 
may therefore conclude, that the exactions of Solomon were 
the pretext rather than the true cause of the unfortunate 
dismemberment of the Hebrew confederation, which in the 
end conducted both sections of it by gradual steps to defeat 
and captivity. 

The kingdom of Judah, less distracted by the pretensions 
of usurpers, and being confirmed in the principles of pa- 
triotism by a more rigid adherence to the law of Moses, 
continued during one hundred and thirty years to resist 
the encroachments of the two rival powers, Egypt and 
Assyria, which now began to contend in earnest for the 
possession of Palestine. Several endeavours were made, 
even after the destruction of Samaria, to unite the energies 
of the Twelve Tribes, and thereby to secure the indepen- 
dence of the sacred territory a little longer. But a pitiful 
jealousy had succeeded to the aversion generated by a long 
course of hostile aggression ; while the overwhelming hosts, 
which incessantly issued from the Euphrates and the Nile 



68 



HISTORICAL OUTLINE FROM SAUL 



to select a field of battle within the borders of Canaan, soon 
left to the feeble councils of Jerusalem no other choice than 
that of an Egyptian or an Assyrian master. 

In the year six hundred and two before the Christian 
era, when Jehoiakim was on the throne of Judah, Nebu- 
chadnezzar, who already shared with his father the govern- 
ment of Assyria, advanced into Palestine at the head of a 
formidable army. A timely submission saved the city as 
well as the' life of the pusillanimous monarch. But after a 
short period, finding the conqueror engaged in more im- 
portant affairs, the vanquished king made an effort to 
recover his dominions by throwing off the Babylonian yoke. 
The siege of Jerusalem was renewed with greater vigour 
on the part of the invaders, in the course of which Jehoia- 
kim was killed, and his son Coniah ascended the throne. 
Scarcely, however, had the new sovereign taken up the 
reigns of government, when he found it necessary to open 
the gates of his capital to the Assyrian prince, who carried 
him, his principal nobility, and the most expert of his arti- 
sans, as prisoners to the banks of the Tigris. 

The nominal authority was now confided to a brother 
or uncle of the captive king, whose original name, Matta- 
niah, was changed to Zedekiah by his lord paramount, who 
considered him merely as the governor of a province. Im- 
patient of an office so subordinate, and instigated, it is 
probable, by the emissaries of Egypt, he resolved to hazard 
his life and liberty for the chance of reconquering the inde- 
pendence of his crown. This imprudent step brought 
Nebuchadnezzar once more before the walls of Jerusalem. 
A siege, which appears to have continued fifteen or sixteen 
months," terminated in the final reduction of the holy city, 
and in the captivity of Zedekiah, who was treated with the 
utmost severity. His two sons were executed in his pres- 
ence, after which his eyes were put out ; when, being 
loaded with fetters, he was carried to Babylon and thrown 
into prison. 

The work of demolition was intrusted to Nebuzar-adan, 
the captain of the guard, who " burnt the house of the Lord, 
and the king's house, and all the houses of Jerusalem, and 
every great man's house burnt he with fire. And the army 
of the Chaldees that were with the captain of the guard 
brake down the walls of Jerusalem round about. The rest 



TO THE DESTRUCTION OF JERUSALEM. 69 



©f the people that were left in the city, and the fugitives 
that fell away to the King of Babylon, with the remnant 
of the multitude, did the captain of the guard carry away. 
But he left the poor of the land to be vine-dressers and hus- 
bandmen."* 

The kings who reigned over Judah from the demise of 
Solomon to the destruction of the first temple are as fol- 
lows ; — - 

Tears. B.C. 

1. Re'noboam 17 990 

2. Abijah 3 973 

3. Asa 41 970 

4. Jehosaaphat 25 929 

5. Jehoram <sr Jorara 8 904 

6. Ahaziah 1 896 

7 Queen Atnalian 6 895 

8. Joash or Jelioasfc 40 889 

9. Amaziah - 29 849 

Interregnum 11 820 

10. Uzziah or Azariak. 52 809 

11. Jothara 16 757 

12. Anaz 16 741 

13. Hezekiah 29 725 

14. Manassefe 55 696 

15. Amor 2 641 

16. Josiah ., 31 639 

17. Jehoahaz 3 months 

18. Jehoiakim 11 608 

19. Coniah or Jehoiachin 3 months 

20. Zedekiah 11 597 

Jerusalem taken 404 586 



The desolation inflicted upon Jerusalem by the hands of 
her enemies excited the deepest sorrow, and gave rise to 
the most gloomy apprehensions in regard to the future. 
Considering themselves under the special protection of Je- 
hovah, the inhabitants could not by any means be induced 
to believe that the throne of David would be overturned by 
the armies of the heathen. It was in vain that Jeremiah, 
at the imminent peril of his life, announced the approach- 
ing judgment, assuring the monarch and his princes that 
the King of Babylon would certainly besiege and lay waste 
their holy city, unless the evil were averted by an imme- 
diate change of manners. All his remonstrances were 
treated with contempt ; and at length the prophet had to 



* 2 Kings xxv. 4-13- 



*fO HISTORICAL OUTLINE FROM SAUL 



- bewail the misery which thus overtook his people, and the 
varied sufferings, the contumely, and the degradation, which 
they were doomed to endure in the land of their conquerers. 
" How doth the city sit solitary that was full of people ! 
How is she become as a widow ! She that was great among 
the nations, and princess among the provinces, is become 
tributary ! She weepeth sore in the night, and her tears 
are on her cheeks ! Judah is gone into captivity ; she 
dwelleth among the heathen, she findeth no rest."* 

These sentiments, although applied to a later period, are 
beautifully expressed by a modem poet, to whom was 
granted no small share of the pathetic eloquence of the pro- 
phetic bard whose words have just been quoted. 

" Reft of thy sons, amid thy foes forlorn, 
Mourn, widowed Queen, forgotten Sion, mourn 1 
Is this thy place, sad city, this thy throne, 
Where the wild desert rears its craggy stone, 
While suns unbless'd their angry lustre fling, 
And wayworn pilgrims seek the scanty spring 1 
Where now thy pomp which kings with envy viewed ; 
Where now thy might which all those kings subdued 1 
No martial myriads muster in thy gate ; 
No suppliant nations in thy Temple wait ; 
No prophet bards, thy glittering courts among, 
Wake the full lyre, and swell the tide of song. 
But lawless Force and meager Want are there, 
And the quick-darting eye of restless Fear ; 
While cold Oblivion, 'mid thy ruins laid, 
Folds his dark wing beneath the ivy shade."f 

The seventy years which were determined concerning 
Jerusalem began, not at the demolition of the city by Nebu- 
zar-adan, the captain of the guard, but at the date of the 
former invasion by his master, in the reign of Jehoiakim, 
when the Assyrians carried away some of the princes, and 
among others Daniel and his celebrated companions, as 
captives, or perhaps as hostages for the good conduct of the 
king. The event now alluded to took place exactly six 
centuries before the Christian era ; and hence the return 
of the Jews to the Holy Land must have occurred about 
the year 530 prior to the same great epoch. But as their 
migration homeward was gradually accomplished under 
different leaders, and with various objects in view, their 



* Lamentations i. 1-4. 



t Heber's Palestine. 



TO THE DESTRUCTION OF JERUSALEM. 71 



historians have not thought it necessary to enter into par- 
ticulars ; and hence has arisen a certain obscurity in the 
calculations of divines respecting the commencement, the 
duration, and the end of the Babylonian captivity. 

The tribes of Judah and Benjamin, who now consti- 
tuted the whole Jewish nation, brought back with them to 
Palestine the ancient spirit of hostility towards the Israel- 
itish kingdom, the people of which they were pleased to 
class imder the general denomination of Samaritans, an im- 
pure race, descended from the eastern colonists sent by 
Shalmaneser to replace the Hebrew captives whom he re- 3 
moved to Halah and Habor and the cities of the Medes. In 
this way they roused an opposition, and created difficulties, 
which otherwise they might not have experienced during 
their erection of the second Temple. The countenance of 
the Persian court itself was occasionally withdrawn from 
men, who appeared to acknowledge no affinity with any 
other order of human beings, and who seemed determined 
to exclude from their country, as well as from their religious 
rites and privileges, all who could not establish an immacu- 
late descent from the father of the faithful. For this 
reason, the sympathy which is so naturally excited in the 
breast of the reader in behalf of the weary exiles, who sat 
down and wept by the waters of Babylon with their 
thoughts fixed on Zion, is very apt to be extinguished when 
he contemplates the bitter enmity with which they rejected 
the kind offices of their ancient brethren amid the ruins of 
their metropolis. 

The names of Zerubbabel, Nehemiah, and Ezra occupy 
the most distinguished place among those worthies who 
were selected by Divine Providence to conduct the restora- 
tion of the chosen people. After much toil, interruption, 
and alarm, Jerusalem could once more boast of a temple 
which, although destitute of the rich ornaments lavished 
upon that of Solomon, was at least of equal dimensions, 
and erected on the same consecrated ground. But the wor- 
shipper had to deplore the absence of the Ark, the symbol- 
ical Urim and Thummim, the Shechinah or Divine Pres- 
ence, and the celestial fire which had maintained an un- 
ceasing flame upon the altar. Their Sacred Writings, too, 
had been dispersed, and their ancient language was fast 
becoming obsolete. To prevent the extension of so great 



72 HISTORICAL OUTLINE FEOM SAUL 



an evil, the more valuable manuscripts were collected andf 
arranged, containing the Law, the earlier Prophets, and the 
inspired Hymns used for the purpose of devotion. Some 
compositions, however, which respected the remotest pe- 
riod of their commonwealth, especially the Book of Jasher 
and the Wars of the Lord, were irretrievably lost. 

Under the Persian satraps, who directed the civil and 
military government of Syria, the Jews were permitted to 
acknowledge the authority of their own high-priest, to 
whom, in all things pertaining to the law of Moses, they 
rendered the obedience which was due to the head of their 
nation. Their prosperity, it is true, was occasionally di- 
minished or increased by the personal character of the sove- 
reigns who successively occupied the throne of Cyrus ; but 
no material change in their circumstances took place until 
the victories of Alexander the Great had laid the founda- 
tions of the Syro-Macedonian kingdom in Western Asia, 
and given a new dynasty to the crown of Egypt. The 
struggles which ensued between these powerful states fre- 
quently involved the interests of the Jews, and made new 
demands upon their allegiance ; although it is admitted, 
that as each was desirous to conciliate a people who 
claimed Palestine for their unalienable heritage, the He- 
brews at large were, during two centuries, treated with 
much liberality and favour. But this generosity or forbear- 
ance was interrupted in the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes, 
who, alarmed by the report of insurrections, and harassed 
by the events of an unsuccessful war in Egypt, directed 
his angry passions against the Jews. Marching at the head 
of a large force, he attacked Jerusalem so suddenly that no 
means of defence could be used, and hardly any resistance 
attempted. Forty thousand of the inhabitants were put to 
death, and an equal number condemned to slavery. Not 
satisfied with this punishment, he proceeded to measures 
still more appalling in the eyes of a Jew. He entered the 
Temple, pillaged the treasury, seized all the sacred utensils, 
the golden candlestick, the table of shew-bread, and the 
altar of incense. He then commanded a great sow to be 
sacrificed on the altar of burnt-offerings, part of the flesh 
to be boiled, and the liquor from this unclean animal to be 
sprinkled over every part of the sacred edifice ; thus pol- 
luting with the most odious defilement even the Holy 



TO THE DESTRUCTION OF JERUSALEM. 73 



of Holies, which no human eye, save that of the high-priest, 
was ever permitted to behold. 

A short time afterward, being the year 168 before the 
epoch of Redemption, he issued an edict for the extermina- 
tion of the whole Hebrew race, against whom he had again 
conceived a furious dislike. This commission was intrusted 
to Apollonius, — ^an instrument worthy of so sanguinary a 
tyrant,-— who, waiting till the Sabbath, when the people 
were occupied in the peaceful duties of religion, let loose 
his soldiers upon the unresisting multitude, slew all the 
men, whose blood deluged the streets, and seized the women 
as captives. He first proceeded to plunder and then to 
dismantle the city, which he set on fire in many places. He 
threw down the walls, and built a strong fortress on the 
highest part of Mount Sion, which commanded the Temple 
and all the adjoining parts of the town. From this garri- 
son he harassed the inhabitants of the country, who, with 
fond attachment, stole in to visit the ruins, or to offer a 
hasty and perilous worship in the place where their sanc- 
tuary had stood. All the public services had ceased, and 
no voice of adoration was heard within the holy gates, ex- 
cept that of the profane heathen calling on their idols.* 

But the persecution did not end even with these furious 
expedients. Antiochus next issued an order for uniformity 
of worship throughout all his dominions, and sent officers 
everywhere to enforce the strictest compliance. In the 
districts of Judea and Samaria, this invidious duty was in- 
trusted to Athenseus, an old man, whose chief recommend- 
ation appears to have been his intimate acquaintance with 
the doctrines and usages of the Grecian religion. The 
Samaritans are said to have conformed without scruple, and 
even to have permitted their temple on Mount Gerizim to be 
regularly dedicated to Jupiter, in his character of the 
Stranger's Friend. Having so far succeeded, the royal en- 
voy turned his steps to Jerusalem, where, at the point of the 
sword, he prohibited every observance connected with the 
Jewish faith ; compelling the people to profane the Sab- 
bath, to eat swine's flesh, and to abstain, under a severe 
penalty, from the national rite of circumcision. The Tem- 
ple was consigned by consecration to the ceremonies of 

* History of the Jews (Nos. 1, 2, 3, Family Library), vol. ii. p. 39. 

G 



74 HISTORICAL OUTLINE FROM SAXJL 



Jupiter Olympius ; while the statue of that deity was 
erected on the altar of burnt-offerings, and sacrifice duly 
performed in his name. Two women, who had the initiatory 
ordinance enjoined by the Mosaical law performed on their 
children, were hanged in a conspicuous part of the city with 
their infants suspended round their necks ; and many other 
cruelties were perpetrated, the very atrocity of which pre- 
cludes them at once from popular belief and from the pages 
of history. Neither age, nor sex, nor profession saved the 
proscribed Jew from the horrors of a violent death. From 
Jerusalem, too, the persecution spread over the whole coun- 
try ; in every city the same barbarities were executed and 
the same profanations introduced. As a last insult, the 
feasts of the Bacchanalia, the license of which, as they were 
celebrated in the later ages of Greece, shocked the severe 
virtue of the older Romans, were substituted for the na- 
tional festival of tabernacles. The reluctant Hebrews were 
forced to join in these riotous orgies, and carry the ivy, the 
insignia of the god. So nearly were the Jewish nation and 
the worship of Jehovah exterminated by the double weapons 
of superstition and violence !* 

But this savage intolerance produced in due time a formi- 
dable opposition. To a sincere believer death has always 
appeared a smaller evil than the relinquishment of his 
faith ; and, in this respect, no people ancient or modern 
have shown more resolution than the descendants of Abra- 
ham. The severities of Antiochus, which had inflamed the 
resentment of the whole Jewish people, called forth in a 
hostile attitude the brave family of the Maccabees, whose 
valour and perseverance enabled them to dispute with the 
powerful monarch of Syria the sovereignty of Palestine. 
Judas, the ablest and most gallant of five sons, put himself 
at the head of the insurgents, whose zeal, more than com- 
pensating for the smaliness of their numbers, carried him to 
victory against large armies and experienced generals. 
Making every allowance for the enthusiastic description 
of an admiring countryman, who has recorded the exploits 
of the Maccabaean chiefs, there will still remain the most 
ample evidence to satisfy every candid reader, that in all the 



* History of the Jews, vol. ii. p. 40. 



TO THE DESTRUCTION OF JERUSALEM. 75 



freat battles the fortune of war followed the standard of the 
ews. 

But the victorious Maccabees, who had delivered their 
country from the oppression of foreigners, encountered a 
more formidable enemy in the factious spirit of their own 
people. Alcimus, a tool of the Syrians, assumed the title 
of high-priest, and in virtue of his office claimed the obe- 
dience of all who acknowledged the institutions of Moses. 
In this emergency Judas courted the alliance of the Romans, 
who willingly extended their protection to confederates so 
likely to aid their ambitious views in the East ; but before 
the republic could interpose her arms in his behalf, the 
Hebrew general had fallen in the field of battle. 

This distinguished patriot was succeeded by his brother 
Jonathan, who, though less celebrated as a warrior, had the 
good fortune to restore the drooping cause of his country- 
men, and even to establish their rights on the footing of in- 
dependence. Profiting by a sanguinary competition for the 
throne of Syria, he consented to employ his power in favour 
of Alexander Balas, on condition that, in return for so sea- 
sonable an aid, he should be allowed to assume the pontifi- 
cal robe as ruler of Judea. Hence the origin of the Asmo- 
nean princes, who, uniting civil with spiritual authority, 
governed Palestine more than a hundred years. 

But Jonathan fell the victim of that refined policy to 
which he was mainly indebted for his elevation. He left 
the sovereign priesthood to his brother Simon, who, wisely 
abstaining from all interference in the disputes which em- 
broiled Egypt and Syria, directed his whole attention to 
the improvement of the Jewish kingdom. To secure the 
tranquillity which had been so dearly purchased he culti- 
vated a more intimate connexion with Rome ; remitting, 
from time to time, such valuable tokens of his respect as 
could not fail to make an impression on the venal minds of 
those aspiring chiefs who already contended for the empire 
of the world in that celebrated capital. But a conspiracy, 
originating in his own house, and fomented by the agents 
of Antiochus, put an end to the life of Simon and of his 
eldest son, who had earned considerable reputation in the 
command of armies. The duty of avenging his death and 
®i governing a distracted country devolved upon his 



76 



HISTORICAL OUTLINE FROM SAUL 



younger son, afterward well known in history by the name 
of John Hyrcanus. 

The unhappy circumstances under which he succeeded 
to power compelled him to submit for a time to the con- 
dition of vassalage ; but no sooner had Antiochus Sidetes 
fallen in the Parthian war, than John shook off the yoke of 
Syria, and exercised the rights of an independent sovereign. 
He even extended his sway beyond the Jordan, reducing 
several important towns to his obedience ; though the 
achievement which most gratified his Jewish subjects was 
the capture of Shechem, followed by the demolition of the 
temple on Gerizim, so long regarded as the opprobrium of 
the Hebrew faith. At a later period he made himself master 
of Samaria and Galilee, when, to gratify still farther the 
vindictive grudge which yet rankled in the breasts of his 
people, he destroyed the capital of the former, and debased 
it to the condition of a stagnant lake. Nor was his atten- 
tion confined to foreign conquest. He strengthened the 
fortifications of Jerusalem, and built the castle of Baris 
within the walls which surrounded the hill of the Temple, 
— a stronghold, that at a future period attracted no small 
degree of notice under the name of Antonia. 

The government was enjoyed during a brief space by 
Aristobulus, the son of Hyrcanus, whose reign was only 
distinguished by the most painful domestic calamities. 
The throne was next occupied by Alexander Jannseus, a 
man of ignoble birth, but of a warlike and very ambitious 
temper. The distracted state of the neighbouring coun- 
tries induced him to take the field, with the view of reducing 
several towns on the coast of the Mediterranean, — an under- 
taking which finally involved him in the troubled politics of 
Egypt and Cyprus. In process of time, the severity of his 
measures, or the meanness of his extraction, rendered him 
so unpopular at Jerusalem that the inhabitants expelled him 
by force of arms. A civil war of the most sanguinary na- 
ture raged several years, during which the insurgents in- 
vited the assistance of Demetrius Euchaerus, one of the 
kings of Syria. This measure seems to have united a large 
party of Jews, who were equally hostile to the dominant 
faction within the city, and to the ally whom they had called 
to their aid. Alexander, after having repeatedly suffered 
the heaviest losses, saw himself again at the head of a power- 



TO THE DESTRUCTION OF JERUSALEM. 77 



ful armv, with which he resolved to march against the re- 
bellious capital. He inflicted a signal punishment upon 
such of the unfortunate citizens as fell into his hands ; or- 
dering nearlv a thousand of them to be crucified, and their 
wives and children to be butchered before their eyes. 

Having fully re-established his power to the remotest 
parts of Palestine, the victorious high-priest, now drawing 
towards the close of his days, gave instructions to his wife 
for the future government of the countrv. Alexandra, a 
woman of a vigorous mind, held the reins of civil power 
with great steadiness, while her eldest son, Hyrcanus the 
Second, was decorated with the sacred diadem as the head 
of the nation. But, unhappily, the commotions which had 
disturbed the reign of her husband were again excited, and 
once more divided the people into two furious parties. 
Aristobulus, the younger son of Jannseus, gave his counte- 
nance to the body who opposed his brother, and at length 
threw off Ins disguise so completely as to aspire to supreme 
power in defiance of the rights of birth and of a legal investi- 
ture. Hyrcanus, who was far inferior to his ambitious rela- 
tive in point of talent and resolution, would probably, after 
the death of their mother, have been unable to keep his seat 
on the throne, had he not received the powerful aid of An- 
tipater, a son of Antipas, the governor of Idumea. Both 
sides were making preparation for an appeal to arms, when 
the Romans, who had already overrun the finest parts of 
Syria, advanced into the province of Palestine in the charac- 
ter at once of umpires and of allies. 

Pompey readily listened to the claims of the two com- 
petitors, but deferred coming to an immediate decision ; 
having resolved, as it afterward appeared, that neither of 
the kinsmen should continue any longer to possess the civil 
and military command of Judea. Aristobulus, impatient 
of delay, and having no confidence in the goodness of his 
cause, had recourse to arms, and at length shut himself up 
in Jerusalem. The Roman general issued orders to his 
lieutenant Gabinius to invest the holy city ; which, after 
a siege of three months, was taken by assault at a great 
expense of human life. 

Many of the priests who were employed in the duties 
of their office fell victims to the rage of the soldiers ; while 
others, unable to witness the desecration of their Temple 

G2 



78 HISTORICAL OUTLINE FROM SAUL 



by the presence of idolaters, threw themselves from the 
rock on which that building stood. Induced by curiosity, 
the rival of Caesar imitated the profane boldness of Antio- 
chus, penetrating into the Holy of Holies, and examining 
all the instruments of a worsbip which differed so much 
from that of all other nations. But Pompey was more 
politic, or more generous than the Syrian monarch ; for 
although he found much treasure in the sanctuary as well 
as many vessels of gold and silver, he carried nothing 
away. He expressed much astonishment that, in a fane so 
magnificent, and frequented by Jews from all parts of the 
earth, there should be no material form, statue, nor picture 
to represent the Deity to whose honour it was erected. 
Having, in order to satisfy the scruples of the people, 
ordered a purification of the Temple, he renewed the ap- 
pointment of Hyrcanus to the high priesthood, but without 
any civil power ; while in respect to the more turbulent 
Aristobulus, he resolved to exercise the right of a con- 
queror, by sending him and his two sons to Rome, that they 
might swell the train of his approaching triumph. 

The escape of one of these young men, and afterward 
of the father himself, rekindled the flame of war in Pales- 
tine. But the Romans under Gabinius and the celebrated 
Mark Antony, speedily subdued the hasty levies of Aristo- 
bulus, and completely re-established the ascendency of the 
Republic in all the revolted districts. In the civil war 
which ensued, Antipater, who still directed the affairs of 
the weak-minded Hyrcanus, paid his court so successfully 
to the dominant faction as to obtain for his master the pro- 
tection of Caesar, and for himself the procuratorship of 
Judea. Raised to this commanding eminence, he named 
Phasael, his eldest son, governor of Jerusalem, and con- 
fided to the younger, the artful and unscrupulous Herod, 
the charge of Galilee. 

But there still remained an individual belonging to the 
family of Aristobulus, who, having found refuge among the 
Parthians, led a powerful army of that people into Syria, 
and finally invested Jerusalem. The invaders, after obtain- 
ing possession of the city, deprived Hyrcanus of the priest- 
hood and Phasael of his life ; the barbarian soldiers, mean- 
time, committing pillage on all classes, both within the 
walls and in the adjoining country. Herod, warned by his 



TO THE DESTRUCTION OF JERUSALEM. 79 



less fortunate relative in the capital, had fled to Rome, 
with the view, it is said, of recommending the interests of 
another Aristobulus, a grandson of Hyrcanus, and brother 
of the beautiful Mariamne^ to whom he himself was already 
betrothed. Gctavius and Antony, however, thought it more 
expedient for their rising empire that Herod should wear 
the vassal crown of Judea in his own person, rather than 
see it placed on the head of an inexperienced youth ; and 
as the son of Antipater was about to unite himself with a 
descendant of the Asmonean princes, it was considered that 
the claims of each family would be thereby fully satisfied. 

The reign of Herod, who, to distinguish him from others 
of the same name, is usually called the Great, was no less 
remarkable for domestic calamity than for public peace and 
happiness. Urged by suspicion, he put to death his be- 
loved wife,* her mother, brother, grandfather, uncle, and 

* The effects produced upon the mind of the king by the murder of 
Mariamne are powerfully described by two poetical writers, the author 
of the History of the Jews, and the unfortunate Lord Byron. " All the 
passions," says the former, " which filled the stormy soul of Herod 
were alike without bound : from violent love and violent resentment he 
sank into as violent remorse and despair. Everywhere by day he was 
haunted by the image of the murdered Mariamne ; he called upon her 
name ; he perpetually burst into passionate tears. In vain he tried 
every diversion, — banquets, revels, the excitements of society. A sud- 
den pestilence broke out, to which many of the noblest of his court, and 
of his own personal friends, fell a sacrifice ; he recognised and trembled 
beneath the hand of the avenging Deity. On pretence of hunting, he 
sought out the most melancholy solitude, till the disorder of his mind 
brought on disorder of body, and he was seized with violent inflamma- 
tion and pains in the back of his head, which led to temporary derange- 
ment."-— Vol. ii. p. 90. 

i. 

" Oh, Mariamne ! now for thee 

The heart for which thou bled'st is bleeding ; 
Revenge is lost in agony, 

And wild remorse to rage succeeding. 
Oh, Mariamne ! where art thou ? 

Thou canst not hear my bitter pleading : 
Ah, couldst thou — thou wouldst pardon now, 

Though Heaven were to my prayer unheeding, 

ii. 

" And is she dead ?— and did they dare 
Obey my phrensy's jealous raving 1 
My wrath but doomed my own despair : 
Tfee sword that smote tier's o'er me waving,— 



\ 



80 HISTORICAL OUTLINE FROM SAUL 



two sons. His palace was the scene of incessant intrigue, 
misery, and bloodshed ; his nearest relations being ever the 
chief instruments of his worst sufferings and fears. It 
was, perhaps, to divert his apprehensions and remorse that 
he employed so much of his time in the labours of archi- 
tecture. Besides a roval residence on Mount Zion, he 
built a number of citadels throughout the country, and laid 
the foundations of several splendid towns. Among these 
was Cesarea, a station well selected both for strength and 
commerce, and destined to become, under a different govern- 
ment, a place of considerable importance. 

But the impurity of his blood as an Idumean, and his 
undisguised attachment to the religion of his Gentile mas- 
ters, created an obstacle to a complete understanding with 
his subjects, which no degree of personal kindness, or of 
wisdom and munificence in the conduct of public affairs, 
could ever entirely remove. At length he determined on a 
measure which, he hoped, would at the same time employ 
the people and ingratiate himself with the higher classes, 
— the rebuilding of the temple in its former splendour and 
greatness. The lapse of five hundred years, and the ravage 
of successive wars, had much impaired the structure of 
Zerubbabel. As it was necessary to remove the dilapi- 
dated parts of the edifice before the new building could be 
begun, the Jews looked on with a suspicious eye ; appre- 
hensive lest the king, under pretence of doing honour to 
their faith, should obliterate every vestige of their ancient 
sanctuary. But the prudence of Herod calmed their fears ; 
the work proceeded with the greatest regularity, and the 



But thou art cold, my murder'd love ! 

And this dark heart is vainly craving 
For her who soars alone above, 

And leaves my soul unworthy saving. 

IZL 

" She 's gone, who shared my diadem ; 
She sunk, with her my joys enrombing ; 
I swept that flower from Judah's stem 

Whose leaves for me alone were blooming ; 
And mine 's the guilt, and mine the hell, 

This bosom's desolation dooming ; 
And I have earned those tortures well, 
Which unconsumed are still consuming." 

Hebrew Melodies. 



TO THE DESTRUCTION OF JERUSALEM. 81 



nation saw, with the utmost joy, a fabric of stately archi- 
tecture crowning the brow of Mount Moriah with glitter- 
ing masses of white marble and pinnacles of gold. Yet 
during this pious undertaking the Jewish monarch main- 
tained his double character ; presiding at the Olympic 
games, granting large donations for their support, and even 
allowing himself to be nominated president of this pagan 
festival.* 

As he advanced towards old age his troubles multiplied, 
and his apprehensions were increased, till, at length, four 
years anterior to the common era of Christianity, Herod 
sank under the pressure of a loathsome disease. He was 
permitted by the Romans so far to exercise the privileges 
of an independent prince as to distribute by will the inherit- 
ance of sovereignty among the more favoured of his chil- 
dren ; and in virtue of this indulgence he assigned to 
Archelaus the govermnent of Idumea, Samaria, and Judea, 
while he bestowed upon Antipas a similar authority over 
Peraea and Galilee. 

But the young princes required the sanction of the Roman 
emperor, whom they both regarded as their liege lord ; and 
with that view repaired to the capital of Italy. The will 
of the late king was acknowledged and confirmed by Au- 
gustus, who was moreover pleased to give to Herod Philip, 
their elder brother, the provinces of Auranitis, Trachonitis, 
Paneas, and Batanea. Archelaus, the metropolis of whose 
dominions was Jerusalem, ruled in quality of ethnarch 
about nine years ; but so little to the satisfaction either of 
his master at Rome or of the people whom he was ap- 
pointed to govern, that at the end of this period he was 
summoned to render an account of his administration at 
the imperial tribunal, when he was deprived of his power 
and wealth, and finally banished into Gaul. Judea was 
now reduced to a Roman province, dependent on the pre- 
fecture of Syria, though usually placed under the inspec- 
tion of a subordinate officer, called the procurator or 
governor. Thus the sceptre passed away from Judah, and 
the lawgiver descended from the family of Jacob ceased to 
enjoy power within the confines of the Promised Land. 

No reader can require to be reminded, that it was at this 

* History of the Jews, vol. ii. p. 96. 



82 



HISTORICAL OUTLINE FROM SAUL 



epoch, in the last year of the reign of Herod, the Messias 
was born, and conveyed into Egypt for security. The 
unjust and cruel government of Archelaus, for which, as 
has just been related, he was stripped of his authority by 
the head of the empire, was probably the cause why the 
holy family did not again take up their residence in Judea, but 
preferred the milder rule of Antipas. When Joseph " heard 
that Archelaus did reign in Judea in the room of *Tiis father 
Herod, he was afraid to go thither : notwithstanding, being 
warned of God in a dream, he turned aside into the parts of 
Galilee : and he came and dwelt in a city called Nazareth."* 

The first thirty years of ^he Christian era did not pass 
away without several insurrections on the part of the Jews, 
and repeated acts of severity and extortion inflicted upon 
them by their stern conquerors. The commotion excited 
by Judas, called the Galilean, is regarded by historians as 
one of the most important of those ebullitions which were 
constantly breaking forth among that inflammatory people, 
not only on account of its immediate consequences, but for 
the effects produced on the national character, in regard to 
the speculative tenets connected with tribute and submission 
to a heathen government. 

Upon the exile of Archelaus, the prefecture of Syria 
was committed to Publius Sulpicius Quirinius. This com- 
mander is mentioned in the Gospel of St. Luke by the 
name of Cyrenius, and is described as the person under 
whom the taxing was first made in that province. Hence 
we may conclude, that the enrolment which took place at 
the birth of our Saviour was merely a census, comprehend- 
ing the numbers, and perhaps the wealth and station of the 
several classes of the people. 

It was about the twenty-sixth year of our epoch that 

* Matth. ii. 22, 23. " Among the atrocities which disgraced the later 
days of Herod, what is called the Massacre of the Innocents (which took 
place late in the year before, or early in the same year with the death 
of Herod) passed away unnoticed. The murder of a few children in 
a village near Jerusalem would excite little sensation among such a 
succession of dreadful events, except among the immediate sufferers. 
The jealousy of Herod against any one who should be born as a king 
in Judea, — the dread that the high religious spirit of the people might be 
re-excited by the hope of a real Messiah, — as well as the summary man. 
ner in which he endeavoured to rid himself of the object of his fears, 
are strictly in accordance with the relentlessness and decision of his 
character." — History of the Jews, vol. ii. p. 106. 



TO THE DESTRUCTION OF JERUSALEM. 83 



Pontius Pilate was nominated to the government of Judea. 
Ignorant or indifferent as to the prejudices of the Jews, he 
roused among them a spirit of the most active resentment, 
by displaying the image of the emperor in Jerusalem, and 
by seizing part of their sacred treasure for the purposes of 
general improvement. As the fiery temper of the inhabit- 
ants drove them, on most occasions, to acts of violence, he 
did not hesitate to employ force in return ; and we find, 
accordingly, that his administration was dishonoured by 
several acts of military execution directed against Jews and 
Samaritans indiscriminately. His severity towards the 
latter people finally led to his recall and disgrace about the 
year 36, when Vitellius, the father of the future emperor 
of the same name, presided over the affairs of the Syrian 
province. 

The plan of our work does not permit us to do more than 
allude to the great event which took place at Jerusalem 
under the auspices of Pilate. We may nevertheless observe, 
that the narrative of the gospel is in strict harmony with 
the character, not only of the time to which it refers, but 
also of all the persons whose acts it describes. The ex- 
pectation of the Jews when Jesus of Nazareth first appeared, 
— their subsequent disappointment and rage, — their hatred 
and impatience of the Roman government, — the perplexity 
of the military chief, — and the motive which at length induced 
him to sacrifice the innocent person who was sisted before 
him, are facts which display the most perfect accordance 
with the tone of civil history at that remarkable period. 

During the troubles which agitated Judea, the districts 
that owned the sovereignty of Antipas and Philip, namely, 
Galilee and the country beyond the Jordan, enjoyed com- 
parative quiet. The former, who is the Herod described by 
our Saviour as " that fox," was a person of a cool and rather 
crafty disposition, and might have terminated his long reign 
in peace, had not Herodias, whom he seduced from his 
brother — the second prince just mentioned — irritated his 
ambition by pointing to the superior rank of his nephew, 
Herod Agrippa, whom Caligula had been pleased to raise 
to a provincial throne. Urged by his wife to solicit a simi- 
lar elevation, he presented himself at Rome, and obtained 
an audience of the emperor ; but the successor of Tiberius 
was so little pleased with his conduct on this occasion, 



84 HISTORICAL OUTLINE FROM SAUL 



that he divested him of the tetrarchy, and banished him 
into Gaul. 

The death of Herod Philip and the degradation of the 
Galilean tetrarch paved the way for the advancement of 
Agrippa to all the honour and power which had belonged to 
the family of David. He was permitted to reign over the 
whole of Palestine, having under his direction the usual 
number of Roman troops, which experience had proved to 
be necessary for the peace of a province at once so remote 
and so turbulent. The only event that disturbed the tran- 
quillity of his government was an insane resolution ex- 
pressed by Caligula to place his own statue in the temple 
of Jerusalem, as an object of respect, if not of positive and 
direct worship, to the whole Jewish nation. The prudence 
of the Syrian prefect, and the influence which Agrippa still 
possessed over the mind of his imperial friend, prevented 
the horrors that must have arisen from the attempt to dese- 
crate, in this odious manner, a sanctuary deemed most holy 
by every descendant of Abraham. 

But no position could be more difficult to hold with safety 
and reputation than that which was occupied by this He- 
brew prince. He was assailed on the one hand by the 
jealousy of the Roman deputies, and on the other by the 
suspicion of his own countrymen, who could never divest 
themselves of the fear that his foreign education had ren- 
dered him indifferent to the rites of the Mosaical law. To 
satisfy the latter, he spared no expense in conferring mag- 
nificence on the daily service of the temple, while he put 
forth his hand to persecute the Christian church in the 
persons of St. Peter and James the brother of John. To 
remove every ground of disloyalty from the eyes of the 
political agents who were appointed by Claudius to watch 
his conduct, he ordered a splendid festival at Cesarea in 
honour of the new emperor ; on which occasion, when 
arrayed in the most gorgeous attire, certain words of adula- 
tion reached his ear, not fit to be addressed to a Jewish 
monarch. The result will be best described in the words 
of sacred Scripture : " And upon a set day Herod, arrayed 
in royal apparel, sat upon his throne, and made an oration 
unto them. And the people gave a shout, saying, it is the 
voice of a god, and not of a man. And immediately the 
angel of the Lord smote him, because he gave not God the 



TO THE DESTRUCTION OF JERUSALEM. 85 



glory ; and he was eaten of worms, and gave up the ghost."* 
He left a son and three daughters, of whom Agrippa, Ber- 
nice, and Drusilla make a conspicuous figure towards the 
close^of the book of Acts. These events took place between 
the fortieth and the forty-fifth years of the Christian faith. 

The youth and inexperience of the prince dictated to the 
Roman government the propriety of assuming once more 
the entire direction of Jewish affairs. The prefecture of 
Syria was confided to Cassius Longinus, under whom 
served, as procurator of Judea, Caspius Fadus, a stern 
though an upright soldier. But the impatience and hatred 
of the people were now inflamed to such a degree, that 
gentleness and severity were equally unavailing to preserve 
the tranquillity of the country. Impostors appeared on 
every hand, proclaiming deliverance to the oppressed chil- 
dren of Jacob, and provoking the more impetuous among 
their brethren to take up arms against the Romans. Various 
conflicts ensued, in which the discipline of the legions hardly 
ever failed to disperse or destroy the tumultuary bands who, 
under such unhappy auspices, attempted to restore the king- 
dom to Israel. The holy city, which was from time to time 
beleaguered by both parties, sustained material injury from 
the furious assaults of pagan and Jew alternately. The 
predictions of its downfall, already circulated among the 
Christians, beaan to mingle with the shouts of its fanatical 
inhabitants ; and already, even at the accession of Agrippa 
the Second to his limited sovereignty, every thing portended 
that miserable consummation which at no distant period 
closed the temporal scene of Hebrew hope and dominion. 

Every succeeding day witnessed the progress of that 
ferocious sect founded on the opinions of Judas the Gaulon- 
ite, who acknowledged no sovereign but Jehovah, and who 
constantly denounced as the greatest of all sins those pay- 
ments or services by means of which a heathenish govern- 
ment was supported. In prosecuting their revolutionary 
schemes, they esteemed no man's life dear, and set as little 
value upon their own. Devoted to the principles of a 
frantic patriotism, they were content to sacrifice to its claims 
the clearest dictates of humanity and religion ; being at all 
times ready to bind themselves by an oath that they would 



* Acts xii, 21, 22, 23. 
H 



86 HISTORICAL OUTLINE FROM SAUL 



neither eat nor drink until they had slain the enemy of their 
nation or of their God. This was the school which sup- 
plied that execrable faction, who added tenfold to the mise- 
ries of Jerusalem in the day of her visitation, and who 
contributed more than all the legions of Rome to realize the 
bitterness of the curse which was poured upon her devoted 
head. 

A succession of unprincipled governors, who were sent 
forth to enrich themselves on the spoils of the Syrian prov- 
inces, accelerated the crisis of Judea. About the middle 
of the first century the notorious Felix was appointed to 
the government, who, in the administration of affairs, habit- 
ually combined violence with fraud, sending out his soldiers 
to inflict punishment on such as had not the means or the 
inclination to bribe his clemency. An equal stranger to 
righteousness and temperance, he presented a fine subject 
for the eloquence of St. Paul, who it is presumed, how- 
ever, made the profligate governor tremble, without either 
affecting his religious principles or improving his moral 
conduct. 

The short residence of Festus procured for the unhappy 
Jews a respite from oppression. He laboured successfully 
to put down the bands of insurgents, whose ravages were 
inflicted indiscriminately upon foreigners and their own 
countrymen ; nor was he less active in checking the ex- 
cesses of the military, so long accustomed to rapine and 
free quarter. Agrippa at the same time transferred the 
seat of his government to Jerusalem, where his presence 
served to moderate the rage of parties, and thereby to post- 
pone the final rupture between the provincials and their 
imperial master. But this brief interval of repose was fol- 
lowed by an increased degree of irritation and fury. Florus, 
alike distinguished for his avarice and cruelty, and who saw 
in the contentions of the people the readiest means for filling 
his own coffers, connived at the mutual hostility which it 
was his duty to prevent. In this nefarious policy he re- 
ceived the countenance of Cestius Gallus, the prefect of 
Syria, who, imitating the maxims of his lieutenant, stu- 
diously drove the natives to insurrection, in order that their 
cries for justice might be drowned amid the clash of arms. 

But he forgot that there are limits to endurance even 
among the most humble and abject. Unable to support the 



TO THE DESTRUCTION OF JERUSALEM. 87 



weight of his tyranny, and galled by certain insults directed 
aorainst their faith, the Jewish inhabitants of Cesarea set 
his power at defiance, and declared their resolution to repel 
his injuries by force. The capital was soon actuated by a 
similar spirit, and made preparations for defence. Cestius 
marched to the gates, and demanded an entrance for the 
imperial cohorts, whose aid was required to support the 
garrison within. The citizens, refusing to comply, antici- 
pated the horrors of a siege, when after a few days they 
saw, to their great surprise, the Syrian prefect in full 
retreat, carrying with him his formidable army. Sallying 
from the different outlets with arms in their hands, they 
pursued the fugitives with the usual fury of an incensed 
multitude ; and, overtaking their enemy at the narrow pass 
of Bethhoron, they avenged the cause of independence by 
a considerable slaughter of the legionary soldiers, and by 
driving the remainder to an ignominious flight. 

Nero received the intelligence of this defeat while amus- 
ing himself in Greece, and immediately sent Vespasian into 
Syria to assume the government, with instructions to restore 
the peace of the province by moderate concessions or by the 
most vigorous warfare. It was in the year sixty-seven 
that this great commander entered Judea, accompanied by 
his son, the celebrated Titus. The result is too well known 
to require details. A series of sanguinary battles deprived 
the Jews of their principal towns one after another, until 
they were at length shut up in Jerusalem ; the siege and 
final reduction of which compose one of the most affecting 
stories that are anywhere recorded in the annals of the 
human race. 



88 



LITERATURE AND RELIGION 



CHAPTER IV. 

On the Literature and Religious Usages of the Ancient 

Hebrews. 

Obscurity of the Subject — Learning issued from the Levitical Colleges- 
Schools of the Prophets — Music and Poetry — Meaning of the term 
Prophecy — Illustrated by References to the Old Testament and to the 
New — The Power of Prediction not confined to those bred in the 
Schools— Race of False Prophets — Their Malignity and Deceit — Mi- 
caiah and Ahab — Charge against Jeremiah the Prophet — Criterion to 
distinguish True from False Prophets — The Canonical Writings of 
the Prophets— Literature of Prophets — Sublime Nature of their Com- 
positions — Examples from Psalms and Prophetical Writings— Humane 
and liberal Spirit — Care used to keep alive the Knowledge of the Law 
— Evils arising from the Division of Israel and Judah — Ezra collects 
the Ancient Books — Schools of Prophets similar to Convents — Sciences 
— Astronomy — Division of Time, Days, Months, and Years — Sabbaths 
and New Moons — Jewish Festivals — Passover— Pentecost — Feast of 
Tabernacles — Of Trumpets — Jubilee — Daughters of Zelophedad — 
Feast of Dedication — Minor Anniversaries — Solemn Character of He- 
brew Learning — Its easy Adaptation to Christianity — Superior to the 
Literature of all other ancient Nations. 

There is no subject on which greater obscurity prevails 
than that of the learning and schools of the Hebrews prior 
to their return from the Babylonian captivity. The wise 
institution of Moses, which provided for the maintenance 
of Levitical towns in all the tribes, secured at least an 
hereditary knowledge of the law, including both its civil 
and its spiritual enactments. It is extremely probable, 
therefore, that all the varieties of literary attainment which 
might be deemed necessary, either for the discharge of pro- 
fessional duties or for the ornament of private life, were 
derived from those seminaries, and partook largely of their 
general character and spirit. An examination of the scanty 
remains of that remote period will justify, to a considerable 
extent, the conjecture now made. It will appear that the 
poetry, the ethics, the oratory, the music, and even the 
physical science cultivated in the time of Samuel and 
David bore a close relation to the original object of the 



OF THE ANCIENT HEBREWS. 89 



Levitical colleges, and were meant to promote the prin- 
ciples of religion and morality, no less than of that singular 
patriotism which made the Hebrew delight in his separation 
from ail the other nations of the earth. 

Our attention is first attracted by the several allusions 
which are scattered over the earlier books of the Old Tes- 
tament to the schools of the prophets. These were estab- 
lishments obviously intended to prepare young men for 
certain offices analogous to those which are discharged in 
our days by the different orders of the clergy ; maintained 
in some degree at the public expense ; and placed under the 
superintendence of persons who were distinguished for their 
gravity and high endowments. The principal studies pur- 
sued in these convents appear to have been poetry and 
music, the elements of which were necessary to the young 
prophet when he was called to take a part in the worship 
of Jehovah. In the book of Samuel we rind the pupils per- 
forming on psalteries, tabrets, and harps ; and in the first 
section of the Chronicles it is said that the sons of Asaph, 
of Heman, and of Jeduthan prophesied with harps, with 
psalteries, and with cymbals. For the same reason Miriam 
the sister of Moses is called a prophetess. When preparing 
to chant her song of triumph, upon the destruction of the 
Egyptians at the Red Sea, " she took a timbrel in her hand, 
and all the women went out after her with timbrels and 
with dances." 

On a similar ground is the expression to be interpreted 
when used by St. Paul in the eleventh chapter of his First 
Epistle to the Corinthians. " Every woman praying or 
prophesying with her head uncovered dishonoureth her 
head ;" that is, every female who takes a part in the devo- 
tions of the Christian Church, — the supplications and the 
praises, — ought, according to the practice of eastern na- 
tions, to have her face concealed in a veil, as becoming the 
modesty of her sex in a mixed congregation. The term 
prophesy, in this instance, must be restricted to the use of 
psalmody, because exposition or exhortation in public was 
not permitted to the women, who were not allowed to speak 
or even to ask a question in a place of worship. Nay, the 
same apostle applies the title of prophet to those persons 
among the heathen who composed or uttered songs in 
praise of their gods. In his Epistle to Titus he alludes to 



m 



LITERATURE AND RELIGION 



the people of Crete in these words, " one of themselves, 
even a prophet of their own, has said, the Cretans were 
always liars." And every classical scholar is perfectly 
aware that in the language of pagan antiquity a poet and 
a prophet were synonymous appellations. 

But the function of the prophet was not confined to the 
duty of praise and thanksgiving ; it also implied the ability 
to expound and enforce the principles of the Mosaical Law. 
He was entitled to exhort and entreat ; and we accordingly 
find that the greater portion of the prophetical writings 
consist of remonstrances, rebukes, threatenings, and expos* 
tulations. In order to be a prophet, in the Hebrew sense 
of the expression, it was not necessary to be endowed with 
the power of foreseeing future events. It is true that the 
holy men through whom the Almighty thought meet to 
reveal his intentions relative to the church, were usually 
selected from the order of persons now described. But 
there were several exceptions, among whom stood pre- 
eminent the eloquent Daniel and the pathetic Amos. To 
prophesy, therefore, in the later times of the Hebrew com- 
monwealth meant most generally the explication and en- 
forcement of Divine truth — an import of the term which was 
extended into the era of the New Testament, when the 
more recondite sense of the phrase was almost entirely laid 
aside. 

In truth, it should seem that even before the days of 
Samuel the opinions, or rather perhaps the popular notions 
connected with the name and offices of a prophet, had un- 
dergone some change, and began to point to higher objects. 
Saul, when employed in seeking his father's asses, had 
journeyed so far from home that he despaired of finding 
his way thither ; and when he was come to the land of 
Zuph he said to his servant, " Come, and let us return ; 
lest my father leave caring for the asses, and take thought 
for us. And he said unto him, Behold now, there is in 
this city a man of God, and he is an honourable man ; all 
that he saith cometh surely to pass : now let us go thither ; 
peradventure he can show us our way that we should go. 
Then said Saul to his servant, But, behold, if we go, what 
shall we bring the man ; for the bread is spent in our ves- 
sels, and there is not a present to bring to the man of God : 
what have we] And the servant answered Saul again, 



OF THE ANCIENT HEBREWS. 



91 



and said, Behold, I have here at hand the fourth part of a 
shekel of silver ; that will I give to the man of God to tell 
us our way. (Beforetime in Israel, when a man went to 
inquire of God, thus he spake, Come, and let us go to the 
seer : for he that is now called a prophet was beforetime 
called a seer.) Then said Saul to his servant, Well said ; 
come, let us go. So they went unto the city where the 
man of God was."* 

The description of soothsayer whom Saul and his servant 
had resolved to consult is very common in all lands at a 
certain stage of knowledge and civilization, — a personage 
who, without much reliance on Divine aid, could amuse the 
curiosity of a rustic and perplex his ignorance with an am- 
biguous answer. But the age of Samuel required more 
solid qualifications in the prophets, and hence the term seer 
had already given way to that of expounder or master of 
eloquence and wisdom. The expedient suggested by the 
attendant of the son of Kish was very natural, and quite 
consistent with his rank and habits ; while the easy ac- 
quiescence which he obtained from his master denotes the 
simplicity of ancient times, not less than the untutored state 
of mind in which the future King of Israel had left his pa- 
rent's dwelling. Before he mounted the throne, however, 
he was sent to acquire the elements of learning among the 
sons of the prophets ; whom, in a short time, he accom- 
panied in their pious exercises in a manner so elevated as N 
to astonish every one who had formerly known the young 
Benjamite; till then remarkable only for a mild disposition 
and great bodily strength. 

The mental bias towards prediction, which is almost un- 
avoidably acquired by the practice of elucidation and com- 
mentary on a dark text, soon showed itself in the schools 
of the prophets. Many of them, trusting to their own in- 
genuity rather than to the suggestion of the Spirit of Truth, 
ventured to foretel the issue of events, and to delineate the 
future fortunes of nations, as well as of individuals. Hence 
the race of false prophets, who brought so much obloquy 
upon the whole order, and not unfrequently barred against 
the approach of godly admonition the ears of those who 
"were actually addressed by an inspired messenger. Nay, 



* 1 Samuel ix. 5-11. 



92 



LITERATURE AND RELIGION 



it appears that some of them arrogated the power of real* 
izing the good or the evil which they were pleased to fore- 
tel ; allowing the people to believe that they were possessed 
with demons, who enabled them, not only to foresee, but to 
influence in no small measure the course of Providence. 
The impression on the mind of Ahab in regard to Micaiah 
leaves no room for doubt that the king imagined the prophet 
to be actuated by a malignant feeling towards him. " I 
hate him," he exclaimed, " for he doth not prophesy good 
concerning me, but evil." Nor was the conviction that this 
ungracious soothsayer spoke from his own wishes rather than 
from a divine impulse confined to the Israelitish monarch. 
The messenger who was sent to call Micaiah spake unto 
him, saying, " Behold now, the words of the prophets de- 
clare good unto the king with one mouth : let thy word, I 
pray thee, be like the word of one of them, and speak that 
which is good."* 

When we consider the uncertainty which must have 
attended all predictions, where the wishes or feelings of the 
prophet could give a different expression to the purposes of 
God, we cannot any longer be surprised at the neglect with 
which such announcements were frequently treated by those 
to whom they were addressed. It is remarkable, too, that 
one prophet did not possess the gift of ascertaining the truth 
or sincerity of another who might declare that he spoke in 
the name of God ; and hence there were no means of deter- 
mining the good faith of this order of men, except the gene- 
ral evidence of a pious character, or the test of a successful 
experience. For example, when Jeremiah proclaimed the 
approaching fall of Jerusalem, the other prophets were 
among the first to oppose him, saying, " Thou shalt surely 
die : why hast thou prophesied in the name of the Lord that 
this house shall be like Shiloh, and this city shall be deso- 
late without an inhabitant ?" The princes of Judah as- 
sembled in the Temple to hear the charge repeated against 
this fearless minister ; when again " spake the priests and 
the prophets unto the princes, and to all the people, saying, 
This man is worthy to die ; for he hath prophesied against 
this city, as ye have heard with your ears." 

It is worthy of notice, too, that the prediction which gave 



* 1 Kings xxii. 8, 13. 



OF THE ANCIENT HEBREWS 



93 



so much offence was conditional and contingent, and that 
Jeremiah, accordingly, incurred the hazard of suffering the 
severe punishment due to a false prophet ; because if the 
people had turned from their sins the fate of their capital 
and nation would have been protracted. " The Lord sent 
me to prophesy against this house, and against this city, all 
the words that ye have heard. Therefore now amend your 
ways and your doings, and obey the voice of the Lord your 
God ; and the Lord will repent him of the evil that he hath 
pronounced against you. As for me, behold, I am in your 
hand ; do with me as seemeth good and meet unto you : but 
know ye for certain, that, if ye put me to death, ye shall 
surely bring innocent blood upon yourselves, and upon this 
city, and upon the inhabitants thereof ; for of a truth the 
Lord hath sent me unto you, to speak all these words in 
your ears."* 

The decision of the princes was more equitable than the 
accusation adduced by the priests and prophets ; for ac- 
cording to the law of Moses no man could be punished for 
predicting the most calamitous events, provided he perse- 
vered in the assertion that he spoke in the name of Jehovah. 
The divine legislator denounced the penalty of death 
against every prophet who should speak in the name of any 
false god, or who should speak in the name of Jehovah that 
which he was not commanded to speak ; but, in regard to 
the latter offence, the guilt could only be substantiated by 
the failure of the prophecy. " And if thou say in thine 
heart, how shall we know the word which the Lord hath 
not spoken 1 When a prophet speaketh in the name of the 
Lord, if the thing follow not, nor come to pass, that is the 
thing which the Lord hath not spoken, but the prophet hath 
spoken it presumptuously."! 

It is obvious, however, that in all cases where a con- 
dition was implied, the fulfilment of the prediction could not 
be regarded as essential to the establishment of the pro- 
phetic character. The capture of Jerusalem produced the 
most undeniable testimony to the inspiration of Jeremiah, 
as well as to the sincerity of his expostulation ; yet it is 
well known that his motives did not escape suspicion, and 



* Jer. xxvi. 8-16. 



t Deut. xviii. 21, 22. 



94 



LITERATURE AND RELIGION 



that his memory was loaded by many of his countrymen 
with the charge of having favoured the Chaldeans. 

It may not appear out of place to inform the young 
reader that the prophets whose writings are contained in 
the Old Testament are in number sixteen, and usually di- 
vided into two classes, the greater and the minor, according 
to the extent of their works and the importance of their sub- 
ject. Of the former, Isaiah, who may be regarded as the 
chief, began to prophesy under Uzziah, and continued till 
the first year of Manasseh. Jeremiah nourished a few 
years before the great captivity, and lived to witness the 
fulfilment of his own predictions. Ezekiel, who had been 
carried into the Babylonian territory some time before the 
ruin of his native country in the days of Zedekiah, began 
to perform his office among the Jewish captives in the land 
of the Chaldees, in the fifth year after Jehoiakim was made 
prisoner. Daniel, the youngest of the four, was only 
twelve years of age when he was involved in the miseries 
of conquest, and reduced to the condition of a dependant 
at a foreign court. 

Among the twelve minor prophets, Jonas, Hosea, Amos, 
and Micah preceded the destruction of the kingdom of 
Israel. Nahum and Joel appeared between that catastrophe 
and the captivity of Judah. Habakkuk, Obadiah, and 
Zephaniah lived at the time when Jerusalem was taken, 
and during part of the captivity. Haggai, Zecharias, and 
Malachi, the last of the whole, prophesied after the return 
from Babylon. 

But our business is rather with the literature of the 
prophets at large than with the special functions of the few 
individuals of their bodv who were commissioned by Heaven 

► a/ 

to reveal the secrets of future time. Of the fruits of their 
professional study we have fine examples preserved in the 
Psalms of David and the Proverbs of Solomon ; the former, 
a collection of sacred lyrics composed for the worship of 
Jehovah ; the latter, a compend of practical wisdom, sug- 
gested by an enlightened experience, and expressed in 
language equally striking for its divine truth and rare sim- 
plicity. 

In early times the dictates of moral philosophy are 
enounced in short sentences, the result of much thought, 
and of which the effect is usually heightened by the intro- 



OF THE ANCIENT HEBREWS. 



95 



duction of a judicious antithesis both in the sentiment and 
the expression. The apothegms ascribed to the wise men 
of Greece belong to this kind of composition ; being ex- 
tremely valuable to a rude people who can profit by the 
fruits of reasoning without being able to attend to its forms, 
and deposite in their minds a useful precept, unencumbered 
with the arguments by means of which its soundness might 
be proved. The books which bear the name of Solomon 
are distinguished above all others for the sage views that 
they exhibit of human life, and for the sensible maxims ad- 
dressed to all conditions of men who have to encounter its 
manifold perils — proving a guide unto the feet and a lamp 
unto the path. 

In no respect does the Hebrew nation appear to greater 
advantage than when viewed in the light of their sublime 
compositions. Nor is this remark confined simply to the 
style or mechanism of their writings, which is neverthe- 
less allowed by the best judges to possess many merits; 
but may be extended more especially to the exalted nature 
of their subjects, — the works, the attributes, and the pur- 
poses of Jehovah. The poets of pagan antiquity, on the 
other hand, excite by their descriptions of divine things our 
ridicule or disgust. Even the most approved of their order 
exhibit repulsive images of their deities, and suggest the 
grossest ideas in connexion with the principles and enjoy- 
ments which prevail among the inhabitants of Olympus. 
But the contemporaries of David, inferior in many things 
to the ingenious people who listened to the strains of Homer 
and of Virgil, are remarkable for their elevated conceptions 
of the Supreme Being as the Creator and Governor of the 
world, not less than for the suitable terms in which they 
give utterance to their exalted thoughts. 

In no other country but Judea, at that early period, were 
such sentiments as the following either expressed or felt. 
" O Jehovah, our Lord, how excellent is thy name in all the 
earth, thou that hast set thy glory above the heavens ! 
When I consider thy heavens, the work of thy ringers, the 
moon and the stars which thou hast ordained ; what is man, 
that thou art mindful of him, or the son of man, that thou 
visitest him ] Bless Jehovah, O my soul. O Lord my 
God, thou art very great, and art clothed with honour and 
majesty ! Thou coverest thyself with light as with a gar- 



96 



LITERATURE AND RELIGION 



ment, and stretchest out the heavens like a curtain : who 
layeth the beams of his chambers in the waters, who maketh 
the clouds his chariot, and walketh upon the wings of the 
wind ! Bless Jehovah, O my soul; and all that is within 
me, bless his holy name. Bless Jehovah, O my soul, and 
forget not all his benefits ; who forgiveth all thine ini- 
quities ; who healeth all thy diseases ; who redeemeth thy 
life from destruction ; who crowneth thee with loving-kind- 
ness and tender mercies* Jehovah is merciful and gracious, 
slow to anger, and plenteous in mercy. He hath not dealt 
with us after our sins, neither rewarded us according; to our 
iniquities. For as the heaven is high above the earth, so 
great is his mercy toward them that fear him. For he 
knoweth our frame, he remembereth that we are dust." — 
" Lord, thou hast searched me and known me : thou 
knowest my downsitting and mine uprising, thou under- 
standest my thoughts long before. Thou art about my bed 
and about my path, and art acquainted with all my ways. 
Whither shall I go from thy spirit, or whither shall I flee 
from thy presence 1 If I ascend up into heaven, thou art 
there ; if I go down to the dwelling of the departed, thou 
art there also. If I take the w T ings of the morning and 
abide in the uttermost parts of the sea, even there shall thy 
hand lead me, and thy right hand shall hold me. If I say, 
surely the darkness shall cover me, even the night shall be 
turned into day. Yea, the darkness is no darkness with 
thee, but the night shineth as the day : the darkness and the 
light are both alike to thee." 

A similar train of lofty conception pervades the writings 
of the prophets. "Who hath measured the waters in the 
hollow of his hand, and meted out the heavens with a span, 
and comprehended the dust of the earth in a measure, and 
weighed the mountains in scales, and the hills in a balance? 
Behold, the nations are as a drop of a bucket, and are 
counted as the small dust of the balance ; he taketh up the 
isles as a very little thing. It is he that sitteth upon the 
circle of the earth, and the inhabitants thereof are as grass- 
hoppers. Lift up your eyes on high, and behold who hath 
created these things, who bringeth out their host by num- 
ber : he calleth them all by names, by the greatness of his 
might, for that he is strong in power, no one faileth. Hast 
thou not known, hast thou not heard, that the everlasting 



OF THE ANCIENT HEBREWS. 



97 



God, the Lord, the Creator of the ends of the earth, fainteth 
not, neither is weary ] There is no searching of his under- 
standing." 

The following quotation from the same inspired author is 
very striking, inasmuch as the truth contained in it is 
founded upon an enlarged view of the Divine government, 
and directly pointed against that insidious Manicheism, 
which, originating in the East, has gradually infected the 
religious opinions of a large portion of mankind. Light 
was imagined to proceed from one source, and darkness 
from another ; all good was traced to one being, and all evil 
was ascribed to a hostile and antagonist principle. Spirit, 
pure and happy, arose from the former ; while matter, with 
its foul propensities and jarring elements, took its rise from 
the latter. But Isaiah, guided by an impulse which super- 
sedes the inferences of the profoundest philosophy, thus 
speaks concerning the God of the Hebrews : — " I am the 
Lord, and there is none else ; there is no God besides me. 
I form the light, and create darkness ; I make peace and 
create evil ; I, the Lord, do all these things." 

But it is not only in such sublimity of language and ex- 
alted imagery that the literature of the Hebrews surpasses 
the writings of the most learned and ingenious portion of the 
heathen world. A distinction not less remarkable is to be 
found in the humane and compassionate spirit which ani- 
mates even the earliest parts of the sacred volume, com- 
posed at a time when the manners of all nations were still 
unrefined, and the softer emotions were not held in honour. 
" Blessed is he who considereth the poor and needy ; the 
Lord will deliver him in the time of trouble. The Lord 
will preserve him and keep him alive ; he shall be blessed 
upon earth, and thou wilt not deliver him into the will of 
his enemies. The Lord will strengthen him upon the bed 
of languishing ; thou wilt make all his bed in his sickness." 

We shall in vain seek for instances of such a benign and 
liberal feeling in the volumes of the most enlightened of 
pagan writers, whether poets or orators. How beautifully 
does the following observation made by Solomon contrast 
with the contempt expressed by Horace for the great body 
of his countrymen : — " He that despiseth his neighbour sin- 
neth ; but he that hath mercy on the poor happy is he. He 
that oppresseth the poor reproacheth his Maker. 1 ' 



98 



LITERATURE AND RELIGION 



Among the Israelites there was no distinction as to lite- 
rary privilege or philosophical sectarianism. There was no 
profane vulgar in the chosen people. The stores of Divine 
knowledge were open to ail alike. The descendant of Jacob 
beheld in every member of his tribe a brother, and not a 
master ; one who in all the respects which give to man dig- 
nity and self-esteem was his equal in the strictest sense of 
the term. Hence the noble flame of patriotism which glowed 
in all the Hebrew institutions before the people became cor- 
rupted by idolatry and a too frequent intercourse with the 
surrounding tribes ; and hence, too, the still more noble 
spirit of fraternal affection which breathed in their ancient 
law, their devotional writers, and their prophets. 

It is worthy of remark, that in order to prevent any part 
of the sacred oracles from becoming obsolete or falling into 
oblivion, the inspired lawgiver left an injunction to read the 
books which bear his name, in the hearing of all the people, 
at the end of every seven years at farthest. " And Moses 
wrote this law, and delivered it unto the priests, the sons 
of Levi, which bare the ark of the covenant of the Lord, and 
unto all the elders of Israel. And Moses commanded them, 
saying, At the end of every seven years, in the solemnity 
of the year of release, in the feast of tabernacles, when all 
Israel is come to appear before the Lord thy God in the 
place which he shall choose, thou shalt read this law before 
all Israel in their hearing. Gather the people together, men, 
and women, and children, and thy stranger that is within 
thy gates, that they may hear, and that they may learn, and 
fear the Lord your God, and observe to do all the words of 
this law : and that their children which have not known 
any thing may hear, and learn to fear the Lord your God, 
as long as ye live in the land whither ye go over Jordan to 
possess it."* 

The value of the Levitical institution, whence originated 
the schools of the prophets, will be the most highly appre- 
ciated by those readers who have noted the evils which arose 
from its suppression among the ten tribes, and finally, in 
the kingdom of Judah itself. The separation of the Israel- 
ites under Jeroboam led, in the first instance, to a defection 
from the Mosaic ritual, and, in the end, to the establishment 



* Deut. xxxi. 9-14. 



OF THE ANCIENT HEBREWS. 



99 



of a rival worship, — a revolution which compelled alt the 
Levites who remained attached to the primitive faith to de- 
sert such of their cities as belonged to the revolted tribes, 
and to seek an asylum among their brethren who acknow- 
ledged the successor of Solomon. Hence the reign of idol- 
atry and that total neglect of the law which disgraced the 
government of the new dynasty ; though it must be granted, 
that with a view to perpetuate their relationship to the 
father of the faithful, the people preserved certain copies 
of the Pentateuch, even after the desolation of their land and 
the complete extinction of their political independence. 

It is more surprising to find, that even among the ortho- 
dox Hebrews at Jerusalem the law sank into a gradual 
oblivion ; insomuch that in the days of Jehoshaphat, the fifth 
from David, it was found necessary to appoint a special 
commission of Levites and priests to revive the knowledge 
of its holy sanctions in all parts of the country. " And they 
taught in Judah, and had the book of the law of the Lord 
with them, and went about throughout all the cities of 
Judah, and taught the people."* 

At a later period, after a succession of idolatrous princes, 
the neglect of the Mosaical writings became still more gene- 
ral, till at length the very manuscript, or book of the law, 
which used to be read in the ears of the congregation, could 
nowhere be found. Josiah, famed for his piety and atten- 
tion to the ceremonies of the national religion, gave orders 
to repair the Temple for the worship of Jehovah ; on which 
occasion, Hilkiah, the high-priest, found the precious record 
in the house of the Lord, and sent it to the king.f A mo- 
mentary zeal bound the people once more to the belief and 
usages of their ancestors ; but the example of the profane 
or careless sovereigns who afterward filled the throne of 
Josiah plunged the country once more into guilt, obliterat- 
ing all recollection of the divine statutes, at least as a code 
of public law. The captivity throws a temporary cloud 
over the Hebrew annals, and prevents us from tracing be- 
yond that point the progress of opinion on this interesting 
subject. But upon the return from Babylon a new era 
commences ; and we now observe the same people, who in 
their prosperity were constantly deviating into the grossest 



* 2 Chronicles xvii. 9. 1 2 Kings xxii. 8. 



100 LITERATURE AND RELIGION 



superstitions and most contemptible idolatry, remarkable for 
a rigid adherence to the ritual of Moses, and for a severe 
intolerance towards all who questioned its heavenly origin 
or its universal obligation. Ezra is understood to have 
charged himself with the duty of collecting and arranging 
the manuscripts which had survived the desolation inflicted 
upon his country by the arms of Assyria, at the same time 
substituting for the more ancient characters usually known 
as the Samaritan the Chaldean alphabet, to which his fol- 
lowers had now become accustomed. From these notices, 
however, which respect a later period, we return to the more 
primitive times immediately succeeding the era of the com- 
monwealth. 

We have ascribed the cultivation of sacred knowledge to 
the schools of the prophets, without having been able to 
trace very distinctly the institution of these seminaries to the 
Levitical colleges, the proper fountains of the national lite- 
rature. In the days of Samuel, it would appear that the 
necessity of certain subordinate establishments had been ad- 
mitted, in order to supply a class of persons qualified to 
instruct such of the people as lived at a distance from the 
cities of the Levites. The rule of the prophetical schools 
seems to have borne some resemblance to that of the better 
description of Christian convents in the primitive ages, en- 
joining abstinence and labour, together with an implicit 
obedience to the authority of their superiors. The clothing, 
also, it may be presumed, was humble, and somewhat pecu- 
liar. A rough garment fastened with a girdle round the 
loins is alluded to by Zechariah ; while the impression made 
on the courtiers at Ramoth-gilead by the appearance of one 
of the sons of the prophets sent thither by Elisha would lead 
us to the same conclusion. " Wherefore," said they, M came 
this mad fellow to thee % n Nor is it without reason that 
some authors have attributed the conduct of the children 
who mocked Elisha to the uncouthness of his dress and to 
the want of a covering for his head. Be this as it may, 
there is no doubt that from the societies now mentioned 
sprang the most distinguished men who adorned the hap- 
piest era of the Jewish church. 

Were we allowed to form a judgment from the few inci- 
dents recorded in the books of the Kings, we should con- 
clude that the accomplishment of writing was not very 



OF THE ANCIENT HEBREWS. 101 



general among the subjects of David and Solomon. It is 
ingeniously conjectured by Michaelis, that Joab, the captain 
of the host, and sister's son of the inspired monarch him- 
self, could not handle the pen ; else he would not, for the 
purpose of concealing from the bearer the real object for 
which he was sent, have found it necessary to tax his inge- 
nuity by putting the very suspicious detail of Uriah's death 
into the mouth of a messenger to be delivered verbally to 
the king* He would at once have written to him that the 
devoted man was killed.* 

As to science in its higher branches, we cannot expect 
any proofs of eminence among a secluded people, devoted, 
as the Hebrews were, to the pursuits of agriculture and the 
feeding of cattle. Solomon, indeed, is said to have been 
acquainted with all the productions of nature, from the 
cedar of Libanus to the hyssop on the wall ; and we may 
readily believe, that the curiosity which distinguished his 
temper would find some gratification in the researches of 
natural history, — the first study of the opening mind in the 
earliest stage of social life. But astronomy had not ad- 
vanced farther than to present an interesting subject of con- 
templation to the pious mind, which could only regard the 
firmament as a smooth surface spread out like a curtain, or 
bearing some resemblance to the canopy of a spacious tent. 
The schools of the prophets, we may presume, were still 
strangers to those profound calculations which determine 
the distance, the magnitude, and the periodical revolutions 
of the heavenly bodies. Even the sages of Chaldea, who 
boast a more ancient civilization than is claimed by the 
Hebrews, satisfied themselves with a few facts which they 
had not learned to generalize, and sometimes with conjec- 
tures which had hardly any relation to a fixed principle or 
a scientific object. Long after the reign of David, these 
wise men had not distinguished the study of the stars from 
the dreams of astrology. 

The first application of astronomical principle is to the 
division of time, as marked out by the periodical movements 
of the heavenly bodies. The Hebrews combined in their 
calculations a reference to the sun and to the moon, so as 
to avail themselves of the natural measure supplied by each. 

* 2 Samuel xi. 18, 22. Commentaries on Laws of Moses, vol. i. p. 257. 

12 



102 LITERATURE AND RELIGION 



Their year accordingly was lunisolar, consisting of twelve 
lunar months, with an intercalation to make the whole 
agree with the annual course of the sun. The year was 
further distinguished as being either common or ecclesias- 
tical. The former began at the autumnal equinox, the 
season at which they imagined the world was created ; 
while the latter, by Divine appointment, commenced about 
six months earlier, the period when their fathers were de- 
livered from the thraldom of Egyptr Their months always 
began with the new moon ; and before the captivity they 
were merely named according to their order, the first, 
second, third, and so on down to the twelfth. But upon 
their return they used the terms which they found employed 
in Babylon, according to the following series :— 



Nisan* March. 

Zif, or Ijar April. 

Sivan May. 

Tamuz June. 

Ab July. 

Elul August. 

Ethanim, or Tisri September. 

Bui, or Mareshuan. October. 

Chisleu November. 

Tebet h Decern ber. 

Sebat January. 

Adar February. 



One-half of these months consisted of thirty days, the 
other of twenty-nine, alternately, making in all three hun- 
dred and fifty-four. To supply the eleven days and six 
hours which were deficient, they introduced every second 
year an additional month of twenty-two days, and every 
fourth year one of twenty-three days ; by which means 
they approached as nearly to the true measure as any other 
nation had attained till the establishment of the Gregorian 
calendar. 

The Hebrews divided the space from sunrise to sunset 
into twelve equal parts, and hence the hours of their day 
varied in length according to the season of the year. For 
example, when the sun rose at five and set at seven, an 

* Nisan was sometimes called Abib, as descriptive of the state of 
vegetation in that month,— the earing of the corn and the blooming of 
the fruit-trees. 



OF THE ANCIENT HEBREWS. - 103 



iiour contained seventy minutes ; but when it rose at seven 
and set at five, the hour was reduced to fifty minutes, and 
so on in proportion to the duration of the time that the sun 
was above the horizon. A similar rule applied to the 
night, which was likewise divided into twelve equal 
portions. 

It must be acknowledged, however, that the observations 
now made apply rather to the acquirements of the Jews 
after their return from the East, than to the more simple 
condition in which they appear under their judges and 
prophets. 

Next to the learning of this early period, the reader of 
the sacred history will have his curiosity excited in regard 
to the time, the place, and the manner of religious worship. 
When the Israelites had obtained possession of the Holy 
Land, and distributed the territory among their tribes, the 
tabernacle, or ambulatory temple, was placed at Shiloh, a 
town in the possession of Ephraim. To that sacred re- 
treat the Hebrews were wont to travel at the three great 
festivals, to accomplish the service enjoined by their law. 

But it appears that a more ordinary kind of religious 
duty was performed at certain stations within the several 
tribes, in the intervals between the stated feasts appointed 
for the whole nation ; having some reference, it is probable, 
to the periodical return of the Sabbath and new moons. 
For this purpose the people seem to have repaired to high 
places, where they might more readily perceive the lunar 
crescent, and give utterance to their customary expression 
of gratitude and joy. This species of adoration was con- 
nived at rather than authorized by the priests and Levites, 
who found it impossible to check altogether the propensity 
of the multitude to perform their worship on the high hill 
and under the green tree. Samuel, the prophet and judge, 
saw the expediency on one occasion of building an altar 
unto the Lord on Ramah, which is called the High Place ; 
and in the reign of Solomon the same practice was con- 
tinued, " because there was no house built unto the name 
of the Lord until those days."* 

It is difficult to determine with precision at what epoch 
the Hebrews first formed those meetings or congregations 



* I Kings iii. 2. 



104 



LITERATURE AND RELIGION 



which are called synagogues,— a name afterward more fre- 
quently applied to the buildings in which they convened. 
The ear liest allusion to them is found in the seventy-fourth 
Psalm, where the writer, describing the havoc committed 
by the Assyrians, remarks, " they have burnt up all the 
synagogues of God in the land." We might infer, from 
this statement alone, that such edifices were common before 
the Babylonian captivity ; but we are supplied with a more 
direct proof in the words of St. James, who informs us, 
that " Moses of old time hath in every city them that preach 
him, being read in the synagogues every Sabbath-day."* 

The duty in these places, which was confined to prayer 
and exposition, was performed by that section of the Levites 
who are usually denominated scribes ; the higher office of 
sacrifice, the scene of which was first the tabernacle and 
afterward the temple, being confined to the priests, the sons 
of Aaron. Perhaps in remote places, where the population 
was small, the inhabitants met in the house of the Levite, 
a conjecture which derives some plausibility from an af- 
fecting incident mentioned in the second book of the Kings. 
When the son of the woman of Shunem died, " she called 
unto her husband and said, send me, I pray thee, one of the 
young men, and one of the asses, that I may run to the 
man of God. And he said, wherefore wilt thou go 1 it is 
neither new moon nor Sabbath." It is reasonable to con- 
clude, that on these days it was customary to repair to the 
dwelling of the holy man for religious purposes. 

We have already alluded to the fact, that at the first set- 
tlement of the Promised Land the tabernacle was estab- 
lished in Shiloh, a village in Ephraim, at that time the most 
numerous and powerful of all the tribes. The profanity or 
disobedience of the people in this district led to the removal 
of the Divine presence, the symbols of which were com- 
manded to be deposited in Jerusalem. " Go ye," says the 
prophet Jeremiah, " unto my place which was in Shiloh, 
where I set my name at the first ; and see what I did to it 
for the wickedness of my people Israel." Hence the ori- 
gin of the feud which subsisted so long between Ephraim and 
Judah, and afterward between the Jews and Samaritans, in 
regard to the spot where Jehovah ought to be worshipped. 



* Acts xv. 21. 



OF THE ANCIENT HEBREWS. 



105 



Each laid claim to a Divine appointment ; neither would 
yield to the other or hold the slightest intercourse in their 
adoration of the same great Being ; and the question re- 
mained as far as ever from beinxr determined when the Ro- 
mans finally cut down all distinctions by their victorious arms. 

Our limits will not permit us to indulge in a minute ac- 
count of the Jewish festivals. Still the three great insti- 
tutions at which all the males of the Hebrew nation were 
commanded to appear before Jehovah are so frequently 
mentioned in the history of the Holy Land, that we must 
take leave to specify their general objects. The feast of 
the Passover, comprehending that of unleavened bread, 
commemorated the signal deliverance of this wonderful 
people from the tyranny of Pharaoh. It was to be kept 
upon the fifteenth day of the first month, to last seven days, 
and to begin, as all their festivals began, the evening before 
at the going down of the sun. 

The reader will attend to the distinction just stated — the 
beginning and end of their sacred days. The celebration 
of the ordinary Sabbath, indeed, commenced on the eve- 
ning of Friday, and terminated at the going down of the 
sun on Saturday. " From even unto even shall ye celebrate 
your Sabbaths." But the Jews, in the concluding period 
of their government, had innovated so far on the Mosaical 
institution as to prohibit the passover from being observed 
on Monday, Wednesday, or Friday, and to appoint the cele- 
bration of it on the following day. The year in which our 
Lord suffered death this fn*eat annual feast fell on a Fri- 
day — beginning, as already stated, at sunset on Thursday 
evening — and the Redeemer accordingly, who came to fulfil 
all righteousness, ate the paschal supper with his disciples 
on the evening of Thursday. Yet the Jews, we find from 
the evangelical narrative, were not to observe that rite till 
the following evening ; and hence, the early part of Friday 
being the preparation, they would not go into the judgment 
hall " lest they should be defiled, but that they might eat 
the passover" after the going down of the sun. For the 
same reason they besought Pilate that the bodies might be 
removed ; intimating that the day which was to begin at 
sunset was to them a high day, being in fact not only the 
Sabbath, but also the paschal feast, both extremely solemn 
in the estimation of every true Israelite. 



106 



LITERATURE AND RELIGION 



On the ground now stated is easily explained the appa- 
rent discrepancy between the account given by St. John and 
that of the other Evangelists. They tell us that our Lord 
celebrated the passover on Thursday evening, the first day 
of the yearly festival ; whereas the beloved disciple relates, 
that the next morning was still the preparation of that 
ordinance which was to be observed by the whole nation 
the ensuing night. Both statements are perfectly correct ; 
only our Saviour adhered to the day fixed by the original 
institution, while the priests and lawyers followed the rule 
established by the Sanhedrim, which threw the festival a 
day after its proper time. 

The proper preparation indeed of every festival began 
only at three o'clock, called by the Hebrews the ninth 
hour, and continued till the close of the day, or the disap- 
pearance of the sun. It was at that hour, accordingly, 
that the Jews entreated the governor to take down the 
bodies from the cross ; holding it extremely improper that 
any token of a curse or capital punishment should meet 
their eyes while making ready to kill the paschal lamb. 

The Feast of Pentecost was an annual offering of grati- 
tude to Jehovah for having blessed the land with increase. 
It took place fifty days after the passover, and hence the 
origin of its name in the Greek version of our Scriptures. 
Another appellation was applied to it — the Feast of Weeks 
— for the reason assigned by the inspired lawgiver. 
" Seven weeks shalt thou number unto thee ; beginning to 
number the seven weeks from such time as thou puttest the 
sickle to the corn. And thou shalt keep the feast of weeks 
unto the Lord thy God with a tribute of a free-will offering 
of thine hand, in the place which Jehovah shall choose to 
place his name there. And thou shalt remember that thou 
wast a bondman in Egypt."* 

This was a very suitable celebration in an agricultural 
society, where joy is always experienced upon the gathering 
in of the fruits of the earth. The Hebrews were espe- 
cially desired on that happy occasion to contrast their 
improved condition, as freemen reaping their own lands, 
with the miserable state from which they had been rescued 
by the good providence of Jehovah. The month of May 



* Deut. xvi. 9—12. 



OF THE ANCIENT HEBREWS* 



107 



witnessed the harvest-home of all Palestine in the days of 
Moses, as well as in the present times ; and no sooner was 
the pleasant toil of filling their barns completed, than all 
the males repaired to the holy city with the appointed tribute 
in their hands, and the song of praise in their mouths. 
Jewish antiquaries inform us, that there was combined with 
this eucharistical service a commemoration of the wonders 
which took place at Mount Sinai, when the Lord conde- 
scended to pronounce his law in the ears of his people. 
The history of our own religion has supplied a greater 
event, which at once supersedes the pious recollections of 
the Hebrew, and touches the heart of the Christian wor- 
shipper' with the feeling of a more enlightened gratitude. 

The termination of the vintage was marked with a 
similar expression of thanksgiving, uttered by the assem- 
bled tribes in the place w T hich had received the " Name of 
Jehovah ;" the visible manifestation of his presence and 
power. The precept for this observance is given in the 
following terms : — " On the fifteenth day of the seventh 
month, when ye have gathered in the fruit of the land, ye 
shall keep a feast unto the Lord seven days. And ye shall 
take unto you, on the first day, the boughs of goodly 
trees, branches of palm-trees, and the boughs of thick trees 
and willows of the brook ; and ye shall rejoice before the 
Lord your God seven days. Ye shall dwell in booths seven 
days, that your generations may know that I made the 
children of Israel to dwell in booths when I brought them 
out of the land of Egypt." 

This festival was of the most lively and animated de- 
scription, celebrated with a joyous heart, and under the 
canopy of heaven, in a most delightful season of the year. 
If more exquisite music and more graceful dances accom- 
panied the gathering in of the grapes on the banks of the 
Cephisus, the tabret and the viol and the harp, which 
sounded around the walls of the sacred metropolis, were 
not wanting in sweetness and gayety ; and, instead of the 
frantic riot of satyrs and bacchanals, the rejoicing was 
chastened by the solemn religious recollections with which 
it was associated, in a manner remarkably pleasing and 
picturesque.* 

The Feast of Trumpets had a reference to the mode 
* History of the Jews, vol. i. p, 99. 



108 LITERATURE AND RELIGION 



practised by many of the ancients for announcing the 
commencement of seasons and epochs. The beginning of 
every month was made known to the inhabitants of Jerusa- 
lem by the sound of musical instruments. " Blow up the 
trumpet in the new moon, in the time appointed, on our 
solemn feast-day : for this was a statute for Israel, a law of 
the God of Jacob." As the first day of the moon in Sep- 
tember was the beginning of the civil year, the festivity 
was greater and more solemn than on other occasions. 
The voice of the trumpets waxed louder than usual, and 
the public mind was instructed by a grave assurance from 
the mouth of the proper officer, that another year was 
added to the age of the world. " In the seventh month, 
in the first day of the month, shall ye have a Sabbath, a 
memorial of blowing of trumpets, an holy convocation. Ye 
shall do no servile work therein ; but ye shall offer an offer- 
ing made by fire unto the Lord."* 

We have already alluded to the jubilee which occurred 
periodically after the lapse of forty-nine years, or, as the 
Jews were wont to express it, after a week of Sabbaths. 
The benevolent uses of this most generous institution are 
known to every reader, more especially as they respected 
personal freedom and the restoration of lands and houses. 
Great care was taken by the Jewish legislator to prevent an 
accumulation of property in one individual, or even in one 
tribe. Nor was his anxiety less to prevent the alienation 
of land, either by sale, mortgage, or marriage. With this 
view we find him enacting a rule, suggested by the case of 
the daughters of -Zelophedad, who had been allowed to 
become heirs to their father, of which the object was to 
perpetuate the possession of landed estates within the limits 
of each particular tribe. The heads of the chief families 
of Manasseh, to which community the young women 
belonged, came before Moses and the Princes of Israel, 
when, after reminding these dignitaries of the fact just 
mentioned, they said, " If they be married to any of the 
sons of the other tribes, then shall their inheritance be taken 
from the inheritance of our fathers, and shall be put to the 
inheritance of the tribe whereunto they are received ; so 
shall it be taken from the lot of our inheritance. And when 

*L6V. xffl. 24, 25. 



OF THE ANCIENT HEBREWS. 



109 



the jubilee of the children of Israel shall be, then shall their 
inheritance be put unto the inheritance of the tribe where- 
unto they are received : so shall their inheritance be taken 
away from the inheritance of the tribe of our fathers." 

To this judicious remonstrance Moses gave the following 
answer : — " This is the thing which the Lord doth command 
concerning the daughters of Zelophedad ; let them marry to 
whom they think best ; only to the family of the tribe of their 
father shall they marry. And every daughter that possess* 
eth an inheritance shall be w r ife unto one of the family of 
the tribe of her father, that the children of Israel may enjoy 
every man the inheritance of his fathers. Neither shall 
the inheritance remove from one tribe to another tribe ; but 
every one of the tribes of the children of Israel shall keep 
himself to his own inheritance."* 

Besides the anniversaries enjoined by Divine authority, 
the Hebrews observed several which were meant to keep 
alive the remembrance of certain great events recorded in 
their history. Of these was the Feast of Dedication men- 
tioned by St. John, referring, it has been thought, to the 
purification of the altar by Judas Maccabseus, after it had 
been profaned by Antiochus, the king of Syria. When the 
ceremony was performed, " Judas and his brethren, with 
the whole congregation of Israel, ordained that the days of 
the dedication of the altar should be kept in their season, 
from year to year, by the space of eight days, from the five- 
and-twentieth day of the ninth month (November,) with 
mirth and gladness."f 

The restoration of the heavenly fire in the temple, after 
the return from Babylon, was likewise commemorated every 
year. This sacred flame, w T hich had been long extinct, was 
revived on the altar the day that Nehemiah performed sacri- 
fice in the new building. For this reason the Jews of 
Palestine wrote to those in Egypt, recommending an annual 
festival in remembrance of an event so important to their 
national worship. They thought it necessary to certify 
them of the fact, that their brethren also might celebrate 
the " feast of the fire which was given us when Neemias 
offered sacrifice after that he had builded the Temple and 
the altar."* 

* Numbers xxxvi. 1-10. T John x. 22, 

X Maccab. iv. 3(5, <fce. 2 Maccab. i. 18, 19. 

K 



no 



LITERATURE AND RELIGION 



It was likewise a custom among this singular people, that 
the young women " went yearly to lament the daughter of 
Jephthah, the Gileadite, four days in a year." A more 
joyous ceremony, _on the fourteenth and fifteenth days of 
the month Adar, reminded the faithful Hebrew of the 
triumph gained by his kindred over the cruel and perfidious 
Haman, who had intended to extirpate their whole race. 
Besides these, we find in the book of Zecharias the prophet 
an allusion to the " fast of the fourth month, and the fast 
of the fifth, and the fast of the seventh, and the fast of the 
tenth days of humiliation which probably recalled certain 
national calamities, such as the destruction of their city 
aaid Temple, and the era of their long captivity. 

In concluding this chapter on the literature and religion 
of the ancient Hebrews, we may remark* in regard to the 
system bequeathed to them by Moses, that it contains the 
only complete body of law which was ever given to a people 
at one time, — that it is the only entire body of law which 
has come down to our days,— ^that it is the only body of 
ancient law which still governs an existing people, — that* 
the nation which it respects being scattered over the face 
of the whole earth, it is the only body of law that is equally 
observed in the four quarters of the globe* — and, finally* 
that all the other codes of law of which history has pre- 
served any recollection, were given to communities who 
already had written statutes, but who wished to change their 
form or modify their application ; whereas, in this case, we 
behold a new society under the hands of a legislator who 
proceeds to lay its very foundations.* 

It may be said of the Hebrews, that they had no profane 
literature, no works devoted to mere amusement or relaxa- 
tion. As they admitted no image of any thing in heaven 
or in earth, they consequently rejected the use of all those 
arts called imitative, and which supply so large a portion 
of the more refined enjoyment characteristic of civilized 
nations. In like manner, they seem to have viewed in the 
light of sacrilege every attempt to bring down the sublime 
language in which they praised Jehovah and recorded his 
mighty works, to the more common and less hallowed pur- 

* CroxalPs Scripture Politics, p. 60, 95. Histoire des H£breux, par 
Rabelleau, torn. i. p. 405. Esprit de PHistoire, torn. i. p. 28- 



OF THE ANCIENT HEBREWS. 



Ill 



poses of fictitious narrative, or of amatory, dramatic, and 
lyrical composition. The Jews have no epic poem to throw 
a lustre on the early annals of their literature. Even the 
Song of Songs is allowed to have a spiritual import, point- 
ing to much higher themes than Solomon and his Egyptian 
bride. A solemn gravity pervades all their writings, befitting 
a people who' were charged with the religious history of the 
world and with the oracles of Divine truth. No smile ap- 
pears to have ever brightened the countenance of a Jewish 
author,— no trifling thought to have passed through his 
mind,— -no ludicrous association to have been formed in his 
fancy. In describing the flood of Deucalion, the Roman 
poet laughs at the grotesque misery which he himself ex- 
hibits, and purposely groups together objects with the inten- 
tion of exciting in his readers the feeling of ridicule. But 
in no instance can we detect the faintest symptom of levity 
in the Hebrew penmen ; their style, like their subject, is 
uniformly exalted, chaste, and severe ; they wrote to men 
concerning the things of God, in a manner suitable to such 
a momentous communication ; and they never ceased to 
remember that, in all their records, whether historical or 
prophetic, they were employed in propagating those glad 
tidings by which all the families of the earth were to be 
blessed. 

There can be no stronger proof of the pure and sublime 
nature of Hebrew poetry than is supplied by the remarkable 
fact, that it has been introduced into the service of the 
Christian church, and found suitable for expressing those 
lofty sentiments with which the gospel inspires the heart 
of every true worshipper. No other nation of the ancient 
world has produced a single poem which could be used by 
an enlightened people in these days for the purposes of de- 
votion.* Hesiod, although much esteemed for the moral 
tone of his compositions, presents very few ideas indeed 
capable of being accommodated to the theology of an im- 

* The sentiment contained in the text is beautifully expressed in the 
following ode by Lord Byron : 

I. 

" The harp the monarch minstrel swept, 
The king of men, the loved of Heaven, 
Which music hallowed while she wept 
O'er tones her heart of hearts had given, 
Redoubled be her tears, its chords are riven I 



112 LITERATURE AND RELIGION, ETC. 

t 

proved age. In perusing the works of the greatest writers 
of paganism, we are struck with a monstrous incongruity 
in all their conceptions of the Supreme Being. The ma- 
jesty with which the Hebrews surrounded Jehovah is 
entirely wanting ; the attributes belonging to the great 
Sovereign of the universe are not appreciated ; the pro- 
vidence of the Divine mind, united with benevolence^ 
compassion, and mercy, is never found to enter into their 
descriptions of the eternal First Cause ; while their incessant 
deviations into polytheism outrage our religious feelings, and 
carry us back to the very rudest periods of human history. 

In these respects the literature of the Jews is far exalted 
above that of every other nation of which history has pre- 
served any traces. It must be acknowledged, that we 
remain ignorant of the learning and theological opinions 
cultivated among the Persians at the time when the Jews 
were under their dominion, and cannot therefore determine 
the precise extent to which the dogmas of the captive tribes 
were affected by their intercourse with a race of men who 
certainly taught the doctrine of the Divine unity, and ab- 
stained from idolatrous usages. But confining our judg^ 
ment even to the oldest compositions of the Hebrews, those, 
for example, which may be traced to the days of Moses, of 
Samuel, and of David, we cannot hesitate to pronounce that 
they are distinguished by a remarkable peculiarity, indicate 
ing by the most unambiguous tokens, that, in all things . 
pertaining to religious belief, the descendants of Jacob were 
placed under a special superintendence and direction. 



It softened men of iron mould, . 

It gave them virtues not their own ; 
No ear so dull, no soul so cold, 

That felt not, fired not to the tone, 

Till David's lyre grew mightier than his throne. 
II. 

" It told the triumphs of our King,. 

It wafted glory to our God ; 
It made our gladden'd valleys ring, 

The cedars bow, the mountains nod ; 

Its sound aspired to heaven and there abode S 
Since then, though heard on earth no more, 

Devotion and her daughter Love 
grill bid the bursting spirit soar 

To sounds that seem as from above, 

In dreams that day's broad light cannot remove, 



DESCRIPTION OF JERUSALEM. 113 



* 



CHAPTER V. 

Description of Jerusalem. 

Pilgrimages to the Holy Land — Arculfus — Willibald— Bernard— Effect 
of Crusades — William de Bouldesell — Bertrandon de la Broquiere — 
State of Damascus — Breidenbach— Baumgarten— Bartholemeo George- 
witz — Aldersey — Sandys— Doubdan — Cheron — Thevenot — Gonzales™ 
Morison — Maundrell-— Pococke — Road from Jaffa to Jerusalem — Plain 
of Sharon — Rama .or Ramla — Condition of the Peasantry — Vale of 
Jeremiah — Jerusalem — Remark of Chateaubriand — Impressions of 
different Travellers— Dr. Clarke — Tasso— Volney— Henniker— Mosque 
of Omar described— Mysterious Stone — Church of Holy Sepulchre — 
Ceremonies of Good Friday — Easter — The Sacred Fire — Grounds for 
Skepticism — Folly of the Priests— Emotion upon entering the Holy 
Tomb— Description of Chateaubriand — Holy Places in the City— On 
Mount Zion — Pool of Siloam — Fountain of the Virgin — Valley of Je- 
hoshaph&t— Mouftt of Offence — The Tombs of Zechariah, of Jehosha- 
phat, and of Absalom — Jewish Architecture — Dr. Clarke's Opinion 
on the Topography of Ancient Jerusalem — Opposed bv other Writers 
—The Inexpediency of such Discussions. 

Having described, as fully as the plan of our undertaking 
will admit, the constitution, history, learning, and religion 
of the ancient Hebrews, we now proceed to give an account 
of the present condition of the country which they inhab- 
ited nearly 1500 years, interrupted only by short intervals 
of captivity or oppression. The connexion which Christ 
tianity acknowledges with the people and soil of Judea 
has, from the earliest times, given a deep interest to travels 
in the Holy Land. The curiosity natural to man in respect 
to things which have obtained celebrity, joined to the con- 
viction, hardly less natural, that there is a certain merit in 
enduring privation and fatigue for the sake of religion, has 
in every age induced pi] i rims to visit the scenes where our 
Divine Faith was originally established, and to communi- 
cate to their contemporaries the result of their investiga- 
tions. It is to be regretted, indeed, that some of them from 
ignorance, and others from a feeling of the weakest bigotry, 
have omitted to notice those very objects which are esteemed 
the most interesting to the general reader ; thinking it thejr 

K3 



114 DESCRIPTION OF JERUSALEM. 

duty, as one of them expresses it, to " quench all spirit 
of vain curiosity, lest they should return without any 
benefit to their souls." 

About the year 705, Jerusalem and its holy places were 
visited by Arculfus, from whose report Adamnan composed 
a narrative, which was received with considerable appro-* 
bation. He describes the Temple on Mount-Calvary with 
some minuteness, mentioning its twelve pillars and eight 
gates. But his attention was more particularly attracted 
by relics, those objects which all Jerusalem flocked to han- 
dle and to kiss with the greatest reverence. He saw the 
cup used at the Last Supper, — the sponge on which the 
vinegar was poured,— the lance which^pierced the side of 
our Lord,—^the cloth in which he was wrapped,— also 
another cloth woven by the Virgin Mary, whereon were 
represented the figures of the Saviour and of the Twelve 
Apostles. 

Eighty years later, Willibald, a Saxon, undertook the 
same journey, influenced by similar motives. Prom his 
infancy he had been distinguished by a sage and pious dis? 
position ; and, on emerging from boyhood, he was seized 
with an anxious desire to " try the unknown ways of pere- 
grination—to pass over the huge wastes of ocean to the 
ends of the earth." To this erratic propensity he owed all 
the fame which a place in the Romish calendar and the 
authorship of an indifferent book can confer. In Jerusalem 
he saw all that Arculfus saw, and nothing more ; but he had 
previously visited the Tomb of the Seven Sleepers, and the 
cave in which St. John wrote the Apocalypse. 

Bernard proceeded to Palestine in the year 878. He 
travelled first in Egypt, and from thence made his way 
across the Desert, the heat of which recalled vividly to his 
imagination the sloping hills of Campania when covered 
with snow. At Alexandria he was subjected to tribute by 
the avaricious governor, who paid no regard to the written 
orders of the sultan. The treatment which he received 
at Cairo was still more distressing. He was thrown into 
prison, and in this extremity he asked counsel of God ; 
whereupon it was miraculously revealed to him, that thir- 
teen denari, such as he had presented to the other Mussul- 
man, would produce here an equally favourable result. 
The celestial origin of this advice was proved by its com- 



DESCRIPTION OF JERUSALEM. 115 



plete success. The pilgrim was not only liberated, but 
obtained letters from the propitiated ruler which saved him 
from all farther exaction. 

The Crusades threw open the holy places to the eyes of 
all Europe ; and accordingly, so long as a Christian king 
swayed the sceptre in the capital of Judea, the merit of 
individual pilgrimage was greatly diminished. But no 
sooner had the warlike Saracens recovered possession of 
Jerusalem than the wonted difficulty and danger returned ; 
and, as might be expected, the interest attached to the 
sacred buildings, which the " infidel dogs" were no longer 
worthy to behold, revived in greater vigour than formerly. 
In 1331, William de Bouldesell adventured on an expedi- 
tion into Arabia and Palestine, of which some account has 
been published. In the monastery of St. Catharine, at the 
base of Mount Sinai, he was hospitably received by the 
monks* who showed him the bones of their patron reposing 
in a tomb, which, however, they appear not to have treated 
with much respect. By means of hard beating, we are 
told, they brought out from these remains of mortality a 
small portion of blood, which they presented to the pilgrim as 
a gift of singular value. A circumstance which particularly 
astonished him would probably have produced no surprise 
in a less believing mind ; the blood, it seems, " had not the 
appearance of real blood, but rather of some thick oily sub- 
stance nevertheless, the miracle was regarded by him as 
one of the greatest that had ever been witnessed in this 
world. 

A hundred years afterward Bertrandon de la Broquiere 
sailed from Venice to Jaffa, where, according to the statis- 
tics of contrite pilgrims, the " pardons of the Holy Land 
begin." At Jerusalem he found the Christians reduced to 
a state of the most cruel thraldom. Such of them as en- 
gaged in trade wore locked up in their shops every night 
by the Saracens, who opened the doors in the morning at 
such an hour as seemed to them most proper or convenient. 
At Damascus they were treated with equal severity. The 
first two persons whom he met in this city knocked him 
down, — an injury which he dared not resent for fear of im- 
mediately losing his life. About thirty years before the 
period of his visit, the destroying arms of Timur had laid 
a large portion of the Syrian capital in ruins, though th.© 

if '• 



116 



DESCRIPTION OF JERUSALEM. 



population had again increased to nearly one hundred 
thousand. During his stay he witnessed the arrival of a 
caravan consisting of more than three thousand camels. Its 
entry employed two days and two nights ; the Koran 
wrapped in silk being carried in front on the back of a camel 
richly adorned with the same costly material. This part 
of the procession was surrounded by a number of persons 
brandishing naked swords, and playing on all sorts of mu- 
sical instruments. The governor, with all the inhabitants, 
went out to meet the holy cavalcade, and to do homage to 
the sacred ensign, which at once proclaimed their faith, and 
announced the object of the pious mission thus success- 
fully concluded. Broquiere found the greatest respect paid 
to every one who had performed the pilgrimage to Mecca, 
and was gravely assured by an eminent Moulah, that no 
such person could ever incur the hazard of everlasting 
s damnation. 

We merely mention the names of Breidenbach of Mentz, 
and of Martin Baumgarten, who in the beginning of the 
sixteenth century achieved a journey into the Holy Land. 
The latter of these, while passing through Egypt, was 
most barbarously treated by the Saracen boys, who pelted 
him with dirt, brickbats, stones, and rotten fruit. At Hebr 
ron he was shown the field " where it is said, or at least 
guessed, that Adam was made ;" but the reddish earth of 
which it is composed is now used in the manufacture of 
prayer-beads. 

The work of Bartholemeo Georgewitz, who travelled in 
the same century, gives a melancholy account of the mise- 
ries endured by such Christians as were carried into slavery 
by the Turks in those evil days. The armies of that nation 
were followed by slave-dealers supplied with chains, by 
means of which fifty or sixty were bound in a row together, 
leaving only two feet between to enable them to walk. 
The hands were manacled during the day, and at night the 
feet also. The sufferings inflicted upon men of rank, and 
those belonging to the learned professions, were almost 
beyond description ; extending not only to the lowest labours 
of the field, but even to the work of oxen, being sometimes 
yoked like these animals in the plough. Owing to the 
great rivers and arms of the sea, it was extremely difficult 
for those who were sent into Asia to effect their escape $ 



DESCRIPTION OF TERTJSALEM. 117 



whence, in many cases, the horrors of captivity had no other 
limits than those of the natural life. No wonder that Bar- 
tholemeo recommends to every one visiting those parts to 
make his will, " like one going not to the earthly, but to 
the heavenly Jerusalem." 

Laurence Aldersey, who set out from London in 1581, was 
the first Protestant who encountered the perils of a voyage 
to Syria. In the Levant a Turkish galley hove in sight, 
and caused great alarm. The master, " being a wise 
fellow, began to devise how to escape the danger ; but, 
while both he and all of us were in our dumps, God sent 
us a merrie gale of wind." As they approached Candia a 
violent storm came on, and the mariners began to reproach 
the Englishman as the cause, " and saide I was no good 
Christian, and wished I were in the middest of the sea, say- 
ing that they and the shippe were the worse for me." He 
replied, " I thinke myself the worst creature in the worlde, 
and do you consider yourselves also." These remonstrances 
were followed by a long sermon, the tenor of which was, 
c< that they were not all good Christians, else it were not 
possible for them to have such weather." A gentleman on 
board informed Aldersey, that the suspicions respecting him 
originated in his refusal to join in the prayers to the Virgin 
Mary, — a charge which he parried by remarking that " they 
who praied to so many goe a wrong way to worke." The 
friars, resolving to bring the matter to an issue, sent round 
the image of Our Lady to kiss. On its approach the good 
Protestant endeavoured to avoid it by going another way ; 
but the bearer " fetched his course about," and presented it, 
The proffered salutation being then positively rejected, the 
affair might have become serious, had not two of the more 
respectable monks interceded in his behalf, and enforced a 
more charitable procedure, 

Of the people of Cyprus he remarks, that they " be very 
rude, and like beasts, and no better : they eat their meat 
sitting upon the ground, with their legs acrosse like tailors." 
On the 8th of August they arrived at Joppa, but did not till 
the next day receive permission to land from the great 
pasha, " who sate upon a hill to see us sent away." Al- 
dersey had mounted before the rest, which greatly displeased 
his highness, who sent a servant to pull him from the saddle 
and beat him ; " whereupon I made a long legge, saying, 

L % 



118 DESCRIPTION OF JERUSALEM. 



Grand mercye, seignor." This timely submission seems 
to have secured forgiveness ; and accordingly, " being 
horsed upon little asses," they commenced their journey 
towards Jerusalem. Rama he describes as so " ruinated, 
that he took it to be rather a heape of stones than a towne ;" 
finding no house to receive them but such a one as they 
were compelled to enter by creeping on their knees* The 
party were exposed to the usual violence and extortion of 
the Arabs ; " they that should have rescued us stood still, 
and durst doe nothing, which was to our cost." On reach- 
ing the holy city they knelt down and gave thanks ; after 
which they were obliged to enter the gate on foot, no Chris- 
tian at that period being allowed to appear within the walls 
mounted. The superior of the convent received the pilgrims 
courteously into his humble establishment, where Aldersey 
tells us, " they were dieted of free cost, and fared reasonable 
well."* 

* The beginning of the seventeenth century witnessed a 
higher order of travellers, who, from such a mixture of mo- 
tives as might actuate either a pilgrim or an antiquary, 
undertook the perilous tour of the Holy Land. Among 
these, one of the most distinguished was George Sandys, 
who commenced his peregrinations in the year ^610, He 
was succeeded by Doubdan, Cheron, Thevenot, Gonzales, 
Morison, Maundrell, and Poeocke, all of whom have con- 
tributed many valuable materials towards a complete know- 
ledge of the localities, government, and actual condition of 
modern Palestine. In our own days the number of works 
on these important subjects has indreased greatly, present- 
ing to the historian of the Turkish provinces in Asia a 
nearer and more minute view of society than could be ob- 
tained by the earlier travellers, who, instead of yielding to 
the characteristic bigotry of Moslem, usually opposed to it 
a prejudice not less determined and uncharitable. We 
must not hazard a catalogue of the enterprising authors to 
whom the European public are indebted for the information 
now enjoyed by every class of readers, in regard to the most 
interesting of all ancient kingdoms, — the country inhabited 
by Israel and Judah. In the description which we are 

* Murray's Historical Account of Discoveries and Travels in Asia, vol, 
til. p, 130. 



DESCRIPTION OF JERUSALEM. 



119 



about to give of the principal towns, the buildings, the an- 
tiquities, the manners, the Opinions, and the religious forms 
which meet the observation of the intelligent tourist in the 
Land of Canaan, we shall select the most striking facts 
from writers of all nations and sects, making no distinction 
but such as shall be dictated by a respect for the learning, 
the candour, and the opportunities which are recorded in 
their several volumes. 

Palestine is usually approached, either from the sea at 
the port of Jaffa (the ancient Joppa), or from Egypt, by way 
of the intervening desert. In both cases, the principal 
olqgect is to obtain a safe and easy route to the capital? 
which, even at the present hour, cannot be reached without 
much danger, unless under the special protection of the na- 
tive authorities. The power of Mohammed Ali, it is true, 
extends almost to the very walls of Gaza ; and wherever his 
government is acknowledged no violence can be committed 
with impunity on European travellers. But the Syrian 
pashas, equally deficient in inclination and vigour, still per- 
mit the grossest extortion, and sometimes connive at the 
most savage atrocities. Besides, there is a class of lawless 
Arabs who scout the borders of the wilderness, holding at 
defiance all the restrictions which a civilized people impose 
Or respect. Sir Frederick Henniker, who followed the un- 
wonted track which leads from Mount Sinai to the southern 
shore of the Dead Sea, narrowly escaped with his life, after 
having been severely wounded and repeatedly robbed by one 
of the most savage hordes of Bedouins. 

The history of the crusades will draw our attention to 
Jaffa more minutely than would be suitable at the present 
stage of our narrative ; we shall therefore proceed on the 
usual route to Jerusalem, collecting as we go along such 
notices as may prove interesting to the reader. At a short 
distance from this celebrated port the pilgrim enters the 
plain of Sharon, celebrated in Scripture for its beautiful 
roses. The monk Neret informs us, that in his time it was 
covered with tulips, the variety of whose colours formed a 
lovely parterre. At present, the eye of the traveller is de- 
lighted with a profusion of roses white and red, the nar- 
cissus, the white and orange lily, the carnation, and a 
highly-fragrant species of everlasting-flower. This plain 
stretches along the coast from Gaza in the south to Mount 



120 



DESCRIPTION OF JERUSALEM. 



Carmel on the north, being bounded towards the east by 
the hills of Judea and Samaria. The whole of it is not 
upon the same level ; it consists of four platforms separated 
from each other by a wall of naked stones. The soil is 
composed of a very fine sand, which, though mixed with 
gravel, appears extremely fertile ; but owing to the desolat- 
ing spirit of Mohammedan despotism, nothing is seen in 
some of the richest fields except thistles and withered grass* 
Here and there, indeed, are scanty plantations of cotton j 
with a few patches of doura, barley, and wheat. The vil- 
lages, which are commonly surrounded with olive-trees and 
sycamores, are for the most part in ruins ; exhibiting a melan- 
choly proof that under a bod government even the bounty 
of Heaven ceases to be a blessing. 

The path by which the hilly barrier is penetrated is diffi- 
cult, and in some places dangerous. But before you reach 
it, turning towards the east, you perceive Rama, or Ramla* 
the ancient Arimathea, distinguished by its charming situa- 
tion, and well known as the residence of a Christian com- 
munity. The convent, it is true, had been plundered five 
years before it was visited by Chateaubriand ; and it was 
not without the most urgent solicitation that the friars were 
permitted to repair their building, as if it were a maxim 
among the Turks, who by their domination continue to 
afflict and disgrace the finest parts of Palestine, that the 
progress of ruin and decay should never be arrested. Volney 
tells us, that when he was at Ramla a commanded resided 
there in a serai, the walls and floors of which were on the 
point of tumbling down. He asked one of the inferior offi- 
cers why his master did not at least pay some attention to 
his own apartment. The reply was, " If another shall ob- 
tain his place next year, who will repay the expense ?" 

In those days the aga maintained about one hundred 
horsemen and as many African soldiers, who were lodged in 
an old Christian church, the nave of which was converted 
into a stable, as also in an ancient khan, which was dis- 
puted with them by the scorpions. The adjacent country 
is planted with lofty olives, the greatest part of which are 
as large as the walnut-trees of France, though they are daily 
perishing througli age and the ravages of contending fac- 
tions. When a peasant is disposed to take revenge on his 
anemy, he goes by night and cuts his trees close to the 



DESCRIPTION OF JERUSALEM. 



121 



ground, when the wound, which he carefully covers from the 
sight, drains off the sap like an issue. Amid these planta- 
tions are seen at every step dry wells, cisterns fallen in, and 
immense vaulted reservoirs, which prove that in ancient 
times this town must have been upwards of four miles in 
circumference. At present it does not contain more than a 
hundred miserable families. The houses are only so many 
huts, sometimes detached, and sometimes ranged in the form 
of cells round a court, enclosed by a mud wall. In winter, 
the inhabitants* and their cattle may be said to live together ; 
the part of the building allotted to themselves being raised 
only two feet above that in which "they lodge their beasts. 
The peasants are by this means kept warm without burning 
wood, — a species of economy indispensable in a country 
absolutely destitute of fuel. As to the fire necessary for 
culinary purposes, they make it, as was the practice in the 
days of Ezekiel the prophet, of dung kneaded into cakes, 
which they dry in the sun, exposing them to its rays on the 
walls of their huts. In summer, their lodging is more airy ; 
but all their furniture consists of a single mat and a pitcher 
for carrying water. The immediate neighbourhood of the 
village is sown at the proper season with grain and water- 
melons ; all the rest is a desert, and abandoned to the 
Bedouin Arabs, who feed their flocks on it. There are fre- 
quent remains of tow^ers, dungeons, and even of castles with 
ramparts and ditches, in some of which are a few Barbary 
soldiers with nothing but a shirt and a musket. These 
ruins, however, are more commonly inhabited by owls, 
jackals, and scorpions.* 

The only remarkable antiquity at Ramla is the minaret 
of a decayed mosque, which, by an Arabic inscription, 
appears to have been built by the Sultan of Egypt. From 
the summit, which is very lofty, the eye follows the whole 
chain of mountains, beginning at Nablous, and skirting 
the extremity of the plain till it loses itself in the south. 

A ride of two hours brings the traveller to the verge of 
the mountains, where the road opens through a rugged 
ravine, and is formed in the dry channel of a torrent. A 
scene of marked solitude and desolation surrounds his steps 



* Chateaubriand, Itineraire, torn. i. p. 380. Volney's Travels, vol. ii. 
p. 335. 



122 



DESCRIPTION OF JERUSALEM. 



as he pursues his journey in what is so simply described in 
the gospel as the " hill country of Judea." He finds him- 
self amid a. labyrinth of mountains, of a conical figure, all 
nearly alike, and connected with each other at their base. 
A naked rock presents strata or beds resembling the seats 
of a Roman amphitheatre, or the walls which support the 
vineyards in the valleys of Savoy. Every recess is filled 
with dwarf oaks, box, and rose-laurels. From the bottom 
of the ravines olive-trees rear their heads, sometimes form- 
ing continuous woods on the sides of the hills. On reach- 
ing the most elevated summit of this chain, he looks down 
towards the south-west on the beautiful Valley of Sharon, 
bounded by the Great Sea ; before him opens the Vale of 
St. Jeremiah ; and in the same direction, on the top of a 
rock, appears in the distance an ancient fortress called the 
Castle of the Maccabees. It is conjectured that the author 
of the Lamentations came into the world in the village 
which has retained his name amid these mountains ; so 
much is certain, at least, that the melancholy of this deso- 
late scene appears to pervade the compositions of the pro- 
phet of sorrows. 

The unvarying manners of the East exhibit to the view 
of the stranger, at the present day, the same picture of 
rural innocence and simplicity which might have met the 
eye of the mother of the Redeemer when she came into 
this pastoral country to salute her cousin Elizabeth. Herds 
of goats with pendant ears, sheep with large tails, and asses 
which remind you, by their beauty, of the onagra of Scrip- 
ture, issue from the villages at the dawn of day. Arab 
women are seen bringing grapes to dry in the vineyards ; 
others with their faces veiled, carrying pitchers of water 
on their heads, like the daughters of Midian. 

From the Valley of Jeremiah the traveller towards Zion 
descends into that which bears the name of Turpentine, 
and is deeper and narrower than the other. Here are ob- 
served some vineyards, and a few patches of doura. He 
next arrives at the brook where the youthful David picked 
up the five smooth stones, with one of which he slew the 
gigantic Goliath. Having crossed the stream, he perceives 
the village of Heriet-Lefta on the bank of another dry 
channel, which resembles a dusty road. El Bire appears 
in the distance on the summit of a lofty hill on the way to 



DESCRIPTION OF JERUSALEM. 



123 



Nablous, the Shechem of the Israelites and the Neapolis 
of the Herods. He now pursues his course through a 
desert, where wild fig-trees thinly scattered wave tfieir em- 
browned leaves in the southern breeze. The ground, which 
had hitherto exhibited some verdure, becomes altogether 
bare ; the sides of the mountains, expanding themselves, 
assume at once ai? appearance of greater grandeur and 
sterility. Presently all vegetation ceases ; even the very 
mosses disappear. The confused amphitheatre of the 
mountains is tinged with a red and vivid colour. In this 
dreary region he keeps ascending a whole hour to gain an 
elevated hill which he sees before him ; after which he pro- 
ceeds during an equal space across a naked plain strewed 
with loose stones. All at once, at the extremity of this 
plain, he perceives a line of Gothic walls flanked with 
square towers, and the tops of a few buildings peeping 
above them ; — he beholds Jerusalem, once the joy of the 
whole earth ! 

" I can now account," says M. Chateaubriand, " for the 
surprise expressed by the crusaders and pilgrims at the 
first sight of Jerusalem, according to the reports of histo- 
rians and travellers. I can affirm that whoever has, like 
me, had the patience to read nearly two hundred modem 
accounts of the Holy Land, the Rabbinical compilations, 
and the passages in the ancient writers respecting Judea, 
still knows nothing at all about it. I paused with my eyes 
fixed on Jerusalem, measuring the height of its walls, re- 
viewing at once all the recollections of history from the 
patriarch Abraham to Godfrey of Bouillon, reflecting on 
the total change accomplished in the world by the mission 
of the Son of Man, and in vain seeking that Temple, not 
one stone of which is left upon another. Were I to live a 
thousand years, never should I forget that desert, which yet 
seems to be pervaded by the greatness of Jehovah and the 
terrors of death."* 

On this occasion a camp of Turkish horse, with all the 
accompaniments of oriental pomp, was pitched under the 
walls. The tents in general were covered with black lamb- 
skins, while those belonging to persons of distinction were 
formed of striped cloth. The horses, saddled and bridled, 

* Itin£raire, torn. ii. p. 385. 



124 



DESCRIPTION OF JERUSALEM. 



were fastened to stakes. There were four pieces of horse- 
artillery, well mounted on carriages, which appeared to be 
of English manufacture. These fierce soldiers are stationed 
near the capital, as well for the purpose of checking the 
savage Bedouins, who acknowledge no master, as for en- 
forcing the tribute demanded from all strangers who enter 
the holy city. The recollections of the Mussulman, no less 
than those of the Christian, inspire a reverential feeling 
for the town in which David dwelt ; and hence, although 
the European pilgrim be oppressed by the present laws of 
Palestine, his motives are usually respected, and even 
praised. 

The reader who has perused with attention some of the 
more recent works on Palestine must have been struck 
with the diversity, and even the apparent contradiction, 
which prevail in their descriptions of Jerusalem. Accord- 
ing to one, the magnificence of its buildings rivals the 
most splendid edifices of modern times, while another could 
perceive nothing but filth and ruins, surmounted by a gaudy 
mosque and a few glittering minarets. The greater num- 
ber, it must be acknowledged, have drawn from their own 
imagination the tints in which they have been pleased to 
exhibit the metropolis of Judea; trusting more to the im- 
pressions conveyed by the brilliant delineations of poetry, 
than to a minute inspection of what they might have seen 
with their own eyes. 

Dr. Clarke, for example, has allowed his pen to be guided 
by the ardent muse of Tasso, rather than by the cool obser- 
vation of an unbiassed traveller. " No sensation of fatigue 
or heat," says he, "could counterbalance the eagerness and 
zeal which animated all our party in the approach to Jeru- 
salem ; every individual pressed forward, hoping first to 
announce the joyful intelligence of its appearance. We 
passed some insignificant ruins, either of ancient buildings 
or of modern villages ; but had they been of more import- 
ance they would have excited little notice at the time, so 
earnestly bent was every mind towards the main object of 
interest and curiosity. At length, after about two hours 
had been passed in this state of anxiety and suspense, 
ascending a hill towards the south — Hagiopolis ! exclaimed 
a Greek in the van of our cavalcade ; and, instantly throw- 
ing himself from his horse, was seen upon his knees, bare- 



I 

! 



DESCRIPTION OF JERUSALEM. 127 

headed, facing the prospect he surveyed. Suddenly the 
sight burst upon us all. The effect produced was that of 
total silence throughout the whole company. Many of our 
party, by an immediate impulse, took off their hats as if 
entering a church, without being sensible of so doing. The 
Greeks and Catholics shed torrents of tears ; and, presently 
beginning to cross themselves with unfeigned devotion, 
asked if they might be permitted to take off the covering 
from their feet, and proceed barefooted to the Holy Sepul- 
chre. We had not been prepared for the grandeur of the 
spectacle which the city alone exhibited. Instead of a 
wretched and rained town, by some described as the deso- 
lated remnant of Jerusalem, we beheld, as it were, a flourish- 
ing and stately metropolis, presenting a magnificent assem- 
blage of domes, towers, palaces, churches, and monasteries ; 
all of which, glittering in the sun's raj r s, shone with incon- 
ceivable splendour. As we drew nearer, our whole atten- 
tion was engrossed by its noble and interesting appear- 
ance."* 

The effect produced upon the Christian army when they 
obtained the first view of the holy city is beautifully de- 
scribed by the Italian poet, thereby supplying, it may be 
suspected, the model which has been so faithfully copied 
by the English tourist. We avail ourselves of the transla- 
tion of Hoole. 

" Now from the golden East the zephyrs borne, 
Proclaimed with balmy gales the approach of morn; 
And fair Aurora decked her radiant head 
With roses cropp'd from Eden's flowery bed ; 
When from the sounding camp was heard afar 
The noise of troops preparing for the war: 
To this succeed the trumpet's loud alarms, 
And rouse, with shriller notes, the host to arms. 

" With holy zeal their swelling hearts abound, 
And their wing'd footsteps scarcely print the ground. 
When now the sun ascends the ethereal way, 
And strikes the dusty field with warmer ray ; 
Behold, Jerusalem in prospect lies ! 
Behold, Jerusalem salutes their eyes ! 
At once a thousand tongues repeat the name, 
And hail Jerusalem with loud acclaim ! 



* Travels, vol. iv. p. 289. 



128 DESCRIPTION OF JERUSALEM. 



"At first, transported with the pleasing sight, 
Each Christian bosom glowed with full delight ; 
But deep contrition soon their joy suppressed, 
And holy sorrow saddened every breast ; 
Scarce dare their eyes the city walls survey, 
Where clothed in flesh their dear Redeemer lay, 
Whose sacred earth did once their Lord enclose, 
And when triumphant from the grave he rose ! 

" Each faltering tongue imperfect speech supplies ; 
Each labouring bosom heaves with frequent sighs. 
Each took the example as their chieftains led, 
With naked feet the hallowed soil they tread! 
Each throws his martial ornaments aside, 
The crested helmets with their plumy pride : 
To humble thoughts their lofty hearts they bend. 
And down their cheeks the pious tears descend."* 

No city assuredly presents a more striking example of the 
vicissitude of human affairs than the capital of the Jews. 
When we hehold its walls levelled, its ditches filled up, and 
all its buildings embarrassed with ruins, we scarcely can be- 
lieve we view that celebrated metropolis which formerly 
withstood the efforts of the most powerful empires, and for a 
time resisted the arms of Rome itself ; though, by a whim- 
sical change of fortune, its mouldering edifices now receive 
her homage and reverence. " In a word," says Volney, 
"we with difficulty recognise Jerusalem." Still more are 
we astonished at its ancient greatness, when w r e consider 
its situation, amid a rugged soil, destitute of water, and 
surrounded by the dry channels of torrents and steep hills. 
Remote from every great road, it seems not to have been 
calculated either for a considerable mart of commerce, or 
for the centre of a great consumption. It overcame, how- 
ever, every obstacle, and maybe adduced as a proof of what 
patriotism and religion may effect in the hands of a good 
government, or when favoured by happy circumstances 
from without. The same principles, in some degree modi- 
fied, still preserve to this city its feeble existence. The 

* The original presents one of the most animated and musical pas 
sages in the Gerusalemme Liberata: — 

" Ma quando il sol gli aridi campi fiede 
Con raggi assai fervente, a in alto sorge, 
Ecco apparir Gerusalem si vede ! 
Ecco additar Gerusalem si scorge ! 
Ecco da mille voci unitamente, 

Gerusalemme salutar si sente ^ —Canto iii. stan. v. 2. 



DESCRIPTION OF JERUSALEM. 



129 



renown of its miracles, perpetuated in the East, invites 
and retains a considerable number of inhabitants within its 
walls.* 

As a contrast to the description of Dr. Clarke, the reader 
may not be displeased to peruse the notes of Sir Frederick 
Henniker on the same subject : — "Jerusalem is called, even 
by the Mohammedans, the Blessed City, — the streets of it 
are narrow and deserted, — the houses dirty and ragged, — 
the shops few and forsaken, — and throughout the whole 
there is not one symptom of either commerce, comfort, or 
happiness. Is this the city that men call the Perfection of 
Beauty, the Joy of the whole Earth ] — The town, which 
appears to me not worth possession, even without the 
trouble of conquest, is walled entirely round, is about a 
mile in length and half a mile in width, so that its circum- 
ference may be estimated at three miles. In three quarters 
of an hour I performed the circuit. It would be difficult to 
conceive how it could ever have been larger than it now is : 
for, independent of the ravines, the four outsides of the 
city are marked by the brook of Siloam, by a burial-place 
at either end, and by the Hill of Calvary ; and the Hill of 
Calvary is now within the town, so that it was formerly 
smaller than it is at present. The best view of it is from 
the Mount of Olives ; it commands the exact shape, and 
nearly every particular, namely, the Church of the Holy 
Sepulchre, the Armenian Convent, the Mosque of Omar, 
St. Stephen's Gate, the round-topped houses, and the barren 
vacancies of the city. The Mosque of Omar is the St. 
Peter's of Turkey. The building itself has a light, pagoda 
appearance ; the garden in which it stands occupies a con- 
siderable part of the city, and contrasted with the surround- 
ing desert is beautiful ; but it is forbidden ground, and Jew 
or Christian entering within its precincts must, if discovered, 
forfeit either his religion or his life."f 

The observation made by Sir Frederick, in regard to the 
difficulty and danger of entering the Mosque of Omar, has 
been verified on more than one occasion. But the obstacles, 
apparently insurmountable, were overcome by Dr. Richard- 
son, who, in return for the successful exercise of his pro- 

* Travels in Egypt and Syria, vol. ii. p. 303, 
t Notes on Egypt, &c. p. 274, 



130 DESCRIPTION OF JERUSALEM. 



fessional skill, was rewarded by a clandestine visit to the 
shrine of the Mussulman saint. It will appear, from the 
few details which we are about to select from his volume, that 
the veil of mystery does not conceal anything really worth 
seeing. Like Pompey in the Temple, the Christian visiter, 
whose presence, in like msnner, profanes the holy place, 
feels no other surprise than is occasioned by the fact, that 
men have agreed to excite curiosity by prohibiting an 
imaginary gratification. 

" On our arrival at the door, a gentle knock brought up 
the sacristan, who, apprized of our intention, was within 
waiting to receive us. He demanded, rather sternly, who 
we were, and was answered by my black conductor in tones 
no less consequential than his own. The door immediately 
edged up, to prevent as much as possible the light from 
shining out, and we squeezed ourselves in with a gentle 
and noiseless step, although there was no person near who 
could be alarmed by the loudest sound of our bare feet 
upon the marble floor. The door was no sooner shut than 
the sacristan, taking a couple of candles in his hand, showed 
us all over the interior of the building, pointing, in the 
pride of his heart, to the elegant marble walls, the beauti- 
fully-gilded ceiling, the well where the true worshippers 
drink and wash, — with which we also blessed our palates 
and moistened our beards, — the paltry reading-desk with 
the ancient. Koran, the handsome columns, and the green 
stone with the wonderful nails. As soon as we had com- 
pleted this circuit, pulling a key from his girdle, he unlocked 
the door of the railing that separates the outer from the 
inner part of the mosque, which, with an elevation of two 
or three steps, led us into the sacred recess. Here he 
pointed out the patches of mosaic in the floor, the round 
flat stone which the Prophet carried on his arm in battle, 
directed us to introduce our hand through the hole in the 
wooden box, to feel the print of the Prophet's foot, and, 
through the posts of the wooden rail, to feel as well as to 
see the marks of the angel Gabriel's fingers (into which T 
carefully put my own) in the sacred stone that occupies 
the centre of the mosque, and from which it derives- the 
name of Sakhara or Locked-up, and over which is sus- 
pended a fine cloth of green and red satin. It was so 
covered with dust that, but for the information of my guide* 



DESCRIPTION OF JERUSALEM. 131 

I should not have been able to tell the composing colours. 
Finally, he pointed to the door that leads into the small 
cavern below, of which he had not the key. 

" I looked up to the interior of the dome ; but, there being 
few lamps burning, the light was not sufficient to show me 
any of its beauty farther than a general glance. The col- 
umns and curiosities were counted over again and again, 
the arches were specially examined and enumerated, to be 
sure that I had not missed nor forgotten any of them. 
Writing would have been an ungracious behaviour, calcu- 
lated to excite a thousand suspicions, that next day would 
have gone to swell the current of the city gossip, to the 
prejudice both of myself and of my friend. Having ex- 
amined the adytum, we once more touched the footstep of 
the Prophet and the finger-prints of the angel Gabriel, and 
descended the steps, over which the door was immediately 
secured."* 

Dr._ Richardson was afterward permitted to visit this 
splendid mosque during the day, when he found that the 
dimensions of the enclosure in which it stands is about fif- 
teen hundred feet in length, and a thousand in breadth. In 
the sacred retirement of this charming spot, the followers 
of the Prophet delight to saunter, or repose, as in the ely- 
sium of their devotions ; and, arrayed in the gorgeous cos- 
tume of the East, add much to the interest, the beauty, and 
solemn stillness of the scene, from which they seem loath 
to retire. The Sakhara itself is a regular octagon of about 
sixty feet a side, and is entered by four spacious doors, each 
of which is adorned with a porch projecting from the line 
of the building and rising considerably on the wall. All 
the sides of it are paneled. The centre-stone of one panel 
is square, of another it is octagonal, and thus they alternate 
all round ; the sides of each running down the angles like 
a plain pilaster, and giving an appearance as if the whole 
were set in a frame. The marble is white, with a con- 
siderable tinge of blue ; square pieces of the latter colour 
being introduced in different places, so as to confer upon 
the exterior a very pleasing effect. The upper story is 
faced with small tiles painted of different colours, white, 
yellow, green, and blue ; some of them are also covered 



* Travels along the Mediterranean and parts adjacent, vol. ii. p. 28& 



132 



DESCRIPTION OF JERUSALEM. 



with sentences from the Koran. At this height there are 
seven elegant windows on each side, except where the 
porches interfere, and then there are only six ; the general 
appearance of the edifice being extremely light and beauti- 
ful, more especially from the mixture of the soft colours 
above and the delicate tints of the marble in the main body 
of the structure. 

The interior fully corresponds to the magnificence and 
beauty just described. There are twenty-four marble co- 
lumns, placed parallel to the eight sides of the building, 
three opposite to each side, so as still to preserve the octago- 
nal form. Eight of them are large plain pillars belong- 
ing to no particular order of architecture, and all standing 
opposite to the eight entering angles of the edifice, and 
deeply indented on the inner side ; so that they furnish an 
acute termination to the octagonal lines within. Between 
every two of the square columns there are two of a round 
figure, well proportioned, and resting on a base. They are 
from eighteen to twenty feet high, with a sort of Corinthian 
capital. A large square plinth of marble extends from the 
top of the one column to the other, and above it there is 
constructed a number of arches all round, which support the 
inner end of the roof or ceiling, the outer end resting upon 
the walls of the building. This is composed of wood, or 
plaster, highly ornamented with a species of carving, and 
richly gilt. 

But this gorgeous temple owes both its name and exist- 
ence to a large irregular mass of stone, having an oblong 
shape, which still occupies the centre of the mosque. It is 
a portion of the calcareous rock on which the city is built, 
and which prevails in the other mountains in the neighbour- 
hood of Jerusalem, having very much the appearance of 
being a part of the bed that might have been left when the 
foundation of the building was levelled. It rises highest 
towards the south-west corner, and falls abruptly at the end, 
where are the prints of the Prophet's foot. It is irregular 
on the upper surface, the same as when it was broken from 
the quarry. It is enclosed all round with a wooden rail 
about four feet high, and which in every place is nearly in 
contact with the stone. We have already mentioned that 
there is a cover or canopy of variously-coloured silk sus- 
pended over it ; and nothing, we are assured can be held 



DESCRIPTION OF JERUSALEM. 133 



in higher veneration than the Hadjr-el-sakharaj the Locked* 
up Stone.* 

But this fragment of limestone has more weighty preten- 
sions to the veneration of the Moslem than the mere print 
of the angel Gabriel's fingers or of the Prophet's foot ; for* 
like the Palladium of ancient Troy, it is said to have fallen 
from heaven on this very spot, at the time when prophecy 
commenced in Jerusalem. It was employed as a seat by the 
venerable men to whom that gift was communicated ; and* 
as long as the spirit of vaticination continued to enlighten 
their minds, the slab remained steady for their accommoda- 
tion. But no sooner was the power of prophecy with- 
drawn, and the persecuted seers compelled to flee for safety 
to other lands, than the stone is declared to have manifested 
the profoundest sympathy in their fate, and even to have 
resolved to accompany them in their flight. On this occa- 
sion Gabriel the archangel interposed his authority^ and 
prevented the departure of the prophetical chair. He 
grasped it with his mighty hand, and nailed it to its rocky 
bed till the arrival of Mohammed, who, horsed on the light- 
ning's wing, flew thither from Mecca, joined the society of 
seventy thousand ministering spirits, and, having offered up 
his devotions to the throne of God, fixed the stone immove- 
ably in this holy site, around which the Caliph Omar erected 
his magnificent mosque. 

Within the same enclosure there is another house of 
prayer called El Aksa, which, though a fine building, is 
greatly inferior to El Sakhara. Between the two there is 
a beautiful fountain, which takes its name from a clump 
of orange-trees overshadowing its water. The mosque is 
composed of seven naves supported by pillars and columns, 
and at the head of the centre nave is a fine cupola. Two 
others branch off at right angles to the principal body of the 
edifice. Before it is a portico of seven arches in front and 
one in depth, supported by square pillars. Ali Bey, who 
in his character of Mussulman was permitted to examine 
the holy fane at leisure, describes the great central nave of 
the Aksa as about 162 feet long and 32 broad. It is sup- 
ported on each side by seven arches lightly pointed, resting 
upon cylindrical pillars, in the form of columns, but with' 

* Richardson's Travels, vol. ii. p. 301. 

M 



134 DESCRIPTION OF JERUSALEM. 

out any architectural proportion, with foliaged capitate 
which do not belong to any order. The fourth pillar to the 
right of the entrance is octangular, and enormously thick. 
It is called the pillar of Sidi Omar. The walls rise 13 feel 
above the tops of the arches, and contain two rows of 
twenty-one windows each. The roof is of timber, without 
being vaulted. The cupola is supported by four large 
arches resting upon four square pillars. It is spherical, with 
two rows of windows, and is ornamented with arabesque 
paintings and gilding of exquisite beauty. Its diameter is- 
equal to that of the central nave. / 

Burckhardt describes the Holy House in Jerusalem as 
a union of several buildings erected at different periods of 
Islamism, bearing upon them demonstrative proofs- of the 
prevailing taste of the various ages in which they were suc- 
cessively constructed. It is not precisely one mosque, but 
a group of mosques. Its name in Arabic, El Haram, 
strictly signifies a temple or place consecrated by the pecu- 
liar presence of the Divinity. The profane and the infidel 
are forbidden to enter it. The Mussulman religion acknow- 
ledges but two temples, those* namely, of Mecca and of 
Jerusalem : both are called El Haram ; both are equally 
prohibited by law to Christians, Jews, and every other per- 
son who is not a believer in the Prophet. The mosques, 
on the other hand, are considered merely as places of meet- 
ing for certain acts of worship, and are not held so espe- 
cially consecrated as to demand the total exclusion of all 
who do not profess the true faith. Entrance into them is 
not denied to the unbeliever by any statute of the Moham- 
medan law ; and hence it is not uncommon for Christians 
at Constantinople to receive from the government a written 
order to visit even the Mosque of St. Sophia. But the 
sultan himself could not grant permission to an infidel 
either to pass into the territory of Mecca, or to enter the 
Temple of Jerusalem. A firman granting such privileges 
Would be regarded as a most horrid sacrilege : it would not 
be respected by the people ; and the favoured object would 
inevitably become the victim of his own imprudent boldness.* 
In the interior of the rock whereon the Sakhara stands 
there is a cave, into which Dr. Richardson could not obtain 



* Travels of Ali Bey, vol. ii. p. 214. 



DESCRIPTION OF JERUSALEM. 135 

fidmittance. He was four times in the mosque, and went 
twice thither under the express assurance that its doors 
should be thrown open to him. But when he arrived the 
key was always wanting, and when the keeper of it was 
sought he could never be found. Ali Bey, who encoun- 
tered no obstacle, reveals all the mystery of this subterra- 
nean mansion. It is a room forming an irregular square 
of about eighteen feet surface, and eight feet high in the 
middle. The roof is that of a natural vault, quite irregular. 
In descending the staircase, -ther6 is upon the right-hand, 
near the bottom, a little tablet of marble, bearing the name 
of El Makam Souleman, the Place of Solomon. A similar 
one upon the left is named El Makam Daoud, the Place of 
David. A cavity or niche on the south-west side of the 
rock is called El Makam Ibrahim, the Place of Abraham. 
A similar concave step at the north-west angle is described 
as El Makam Djibrila, the place of Gabriel ; and a sort of 
stone table at the north-east angle is denominated El Makam 
el Hoder, the Place of Elias. In the roof of the apart- 
ment, exactly in the middle, there is an aperture almost 
cylindrical through the whole thickness of the rock, about 
three feet in diameter. This is the Place of the Prophet. 

M. Burckhardt observed a copy of the Koran, the leaves 
of which were four feet long, and more than two feet and a 
half broad. Tradition reports that it belonged to the Galiph 
Omar ; but he saw a similar one in the grand mosque at 
Cairo, and another at Mecca, to both of which the same 
origin is assigned. The drawings supplied by this enter- 
prising traveller give a very distinct notion of the extent 
and magnificence of the great Mussulman temple,— the 
most prominent object in the modern Jerusalem, and occu- 
pying the site of the still more interesting edifice erected by 
Solomon in the proudest period of Jewish history. 

But the Christian pilgrim, who walks about the holy city 
M to tell her towers and mark her bulwarks," is more 
readily attracted by less splendid objects, the memorials of 
his own more humble faith. Among these the most re^ 
markable is the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, which is 
built on the lower part of the sloping hill distinguished by 
the name of Acra, near the place where it is joined to 
Mount Moriah. The Turkish government, aware of the 
veneration which all Christians entertain for relics in any 



136 DESCRIPTION OF JERUSALEM 



way connected with the sufferings of the great Author of 
their religion, have converted this feeling into a source of 
revenue ; every person not subject to the Sublime Porte, 
who visits the shrine of Jesus Christ, being compelled to pay 
a certain sum of money for admittance. But the church, 
nevertheless, is opened only on particular days of the week, 
and cannot be seen at any other time without an order from 
the two convents, the Latin and the Greek, with the sanc- 
tion of the governor of the city. On such occasions the 
pressure at the doors is very great ; the zeal of the pilgrims 
checked by the insolence of the Turks, who delight to insult 
and disappoint their anxiety, leading sometimes to scenes 
of tumult not quite in harmony w T ith their pious motives. 
We shall give an account of the effect produced by the local 
and historical associations of the place on a sober spirit, in 
the words of a traveller to whom we have been already 
indebted : — 

" The mind is not withdrawn from the important con- 
cerns of this hallowed spot by any tasteful decorations or 
dignified display of architecture in its plan or in its walls ; 
but having cleared the throng, the religion of the place is 
allowed to take full possession of the soul, and the visiter 
feels as if he were passing into the presence of the great 
and immaculate Jehovah, and summoned to give an ac- 
count of the most silent and secret thoughts of his heart. 
Having passed within these sacred walls, the attention is 
first directed to a large flat stone in the floor, a little within 
the door ; it is surrounded by a rail, and several lamps hang 
suspended over it. The pilgrims approach it on their 
knees ; touch and kiss it, and prostrating themselves before 
it, offer up their prayers in holy adoration. This is the stone 
on which the body of our Lord was washed and anointed, 
and prepared for the tomb. Turning to the left and pro- 
ceeding a little forward, we came into a round space imme- 
diately under the dome, surrounded with sixteen large 
columns which support the gallery above. In the centre 
of this space stands the Holy Sepulchre ; it is enclosed in 
an oblong house, rounded at one end w T ith small arcades or 
chapels for prayer, on the outside of it. These are for the 
Copts, the Abyssinians, the Syrian Mareonites, and other 
Christians, who are not, like the Roman Catholics, the 
Greeks, and Armenians, provided with large chapels in the 



DESCRIPTION OF JERUSALEM. VS7 

Body of the church. At the other end it is squared off and 
furnished with a platform in front, which is ascended by a. 
flight of steps, having a small parapet-wall of marble on 
each hand, and floored with the same material. In the 
middle of this small platform stands a block of polished 
marble about a foot and a half square ; on this stone sat 
the angel who announced the blessed tidings of the resur- 
rection to Mary Magdalene, and Joanna, and Mary the 
mother of James. Advancing, and taking off our shoes 
and turbans at the desire of the keeper, he drew aside the 
curtain, and stepping down, and bending almost to the 
ground, we entered by a low narrow door into this mansion 
of victory, where Christ triumphed over the grave, and dis- 
armed Death of all his terrors. Here the mind looks on 
Him who, though he knew no sin, yet entered the man- 
sions of the dead to redeem us from death, and the prayers 
^•of a grateful heart ascend with a risen Saviour to the pres- 
ence of God in heaven."* 

The tomb exhibited is a sarcophagus of white marble, 
slightly tinged with blue, being fully six feet long, three 
feet broad, and two feet two inches deep. It is but indif- 
ferently polished, and seems as if it had at one time been 
exposed to the action of the atmosphere, by which it has 
been considerably affected. It is without any ornament, 
made in the Greek fashion, and not like the more ancient 
tombs of the Jews, which we see cut in the rock for the 
reception of the dead. There are seven lamps constantly 
burning over it, the gifts of different sovereigns in a suc- 
cession of ages. It occupies about one-half of the sepul- 
chral chamber, and extends from one end of it to the other. 
A space about three feet wide in front of it is all that 
remains for the accommodation of visiters, so that not more 
than three or four can be conveniently admitted at a time. 

Leaving this hallowed spot, the pilgrim is conducted to 
the place where our Lord appeared to Mary Magdalene, 
and next to the Chapel of Apparition, where he presented 
himself to the Blessed Virgin. The Greeks have an oratory 
opposite to the Holy Sepulchre, in which they have set up 
a globe, representing, as they are pleased to imagine, the 
centre of the earth ; thus transferring from Delphi to Je- 



* Richardson's Travels, vol. ij. p. 321. 
M2 



138 



DESCRIPTION OF JERUSALEM. 



rusalem the absurd notions of the pagan priests of anti- 
quity relative to the figure of the habitable world. After 
this he enters a dark narrow staircase, which, by about 
twenty steps, carries him to Mount Calvary. " This," ex- 
claims Dr. Richardson, " is the centre, the grand magnet 
of the Christian church : from this proceed life and salva- 
tion ; thither all hearts tend and all eyes are directed ; here 
kings and queens cast down their crowns, and great men 
and women part with their ornaments ; at the foot of the 
cross all are on a level, equally needy and equally welcome."* 

On Calvary is shown the spot where the Redeemer was 
nailed to the cross, the hole into which the end of it was 
fixed, and the rent in the rock. All these are covered with 
marble, perforated in the proper places, so that they may 
be seen and touched. Near at hand a cross is erected on 
an elevated part of the ground, and a wooden body stretched 
upon it in the attitude of suffering. Descending from the 
Mount, the traveller enters the chapel of St, Helena, the 
mother of Constantine, in which is the vault where the 
true cross is said to have been found, — an event that con- 
tinues to be celebrated every year on the third of May by 
an appropriate mass. The place is large enough to con- 
tain about thirty or forty individuals, and on that annual 
solemnity it is usually crowded to the door. 

The spirit in which these commemorations are some- 
times performed is by no means honourable to the Christian 
character. An ancient rivalry between the members of the 
Greek and those of the Roman communion continues to 
imbitter their disputes in regard to their respective privi- 
leges and procedure. Maundrell informs us that in his 
time each fraternity had their own altar and sanctuary, at 
which they had a peculiar right to celebrate divine service 
and to exclude all other nations. But, says he, that which 
has always been the great prize contended for by the several 
sects, is the command andT appropriation of the Holy Sepul- 
chre ; a privilege contested with so much unchristian fury 
and animosity, especially between the Greeks and Latins, 
that, in disputing which party should go in to celebrate 
their mass, they have sometimes proceeded to blows and 
wounds, even at the very door of the sepulchre, mingling 



* Trayels, vol. ii. p. 325. 



DESCRIPTION OF JERUSALEM. 



139 



their own blood with their sacrifices. The King of France 
interposed about the end of the seventeenth century, and 
obtained an order from the grand vizier to put that holy- 
place into the possession of the Western Church ; an ar- 
rangement which was accomplished in the year 1690, and 
secured to the Latins the exclusive privilege of saying mass 
in it. "And though it be permitted to Christians of all 
nations to go into it for their private devotions, yet none 
other may solemnize any public office of religion there."* 

The daily employment of these recluses is to trim the 
lamps, and to make devotional visits and processions to the 
several sanctuaries in the church. Thus they spend their 
time, many of them for four or six years together ; nay, so 
far are some transported with the pleasing contemplation in 
which they here entertain themselves, that they will never 
come out to their dying day ; burying themselves, as it were, 
alive in our Lord's grave. f 

It was at the holy season of Easter that Mr. Maundrell 
visited Jerusalem, when he witnessed the annual service 
performed by the monks ; rather too minutely descriptive, 
perhaps, of the great event to which it refers. " Their 
ceremony begins on Good Friday night, which is called by 
them the Nox Tenebrosa^ and is observed with such an ex- 
traordinary solemnity that I cannot omit to give a particular 
description of it : — As soon as it grew dark, all the friars 
and pilgrims were convened in the chapel of the Apparition, 
in order to go in a procession round the church. But before 
they set out one of the friars preached a sermon in Italian. 
He began his discourse thus : — In questa notte tenebrosa^ — 
at which words all the candles were instantly put out, to 
yield a livelier image of the occasion : and so we were held 
by the preacher for near half an hour very much in the dark. 
Sermon being ended, every person present had a large 
lighted taper put into his hand, as if it were to make amends 
for the former darkness ; and the crucifixes and other uten- 
sils were disposed in order for beginning the procession. 
Among the other crucifixes there was one of a very large 
size, which bore upon it the image of our Lord as big as the 
life. The image was fastened to it with great nails, crowned 
with thorns, and besmeared with blood ; and so exquisitely 

* Maundrell's Journey from Aleppo to Jerusalem, p. 71. 



140 DESCRIPTION OF JERUSALEM. 

was it formed, that it represented, in a very lively manner, 
the lamentable spectacle of our Lord's body as it hung upon 
the cross. This figure was carried all along in the head of 
the procession ; after which the company followed to all the 
sanctuaries in the church, singing their appointed hymn at 
every one. 

" The first place they visited was that of the pillar of 
Flagellation, a large piece of which is kept in a little cell 
just at the door of the chapel of the Apparition. There 
they sang their proper hymn ; and another friar entertained 
the company with a sermon in Spanish, touching the 
scourging of our Lord. From hence they proceeded in 
» solemn order to the prison of Christ, where they pretend he 
was secured while the soldiers made things ready for his 
crucifixion ; here likewise they sang their hymn, and a 
third friar preached in French. From the prison they went 
to the altar of the Division of our Lord's garments, where 
they only sang their hymn without adding any sermon. 
Having done here, they advanced to the chapel of the Di- 
vision ; at w r hich, after their hymn, they had a fourth sermon, 
as I remember, in French. 

"From this place they went up to Calvary, leaving their 
shoes at the bottom of the stairs. Here are two altars to be 
visited ; one where our Lord is supposed to have been 
nailed to the cross, another where his cross was erected. 
At the former of these they laid down the great crucifix 
upon the floor, and acted a kind of resemblance of Christ's 
being nailed to the cross ; and after the hymn another friar 
preached a sermon in Spanish upon the crucifixion. From 
hence they removed to the adjoining altar, where the cross 
is supposed to have been erected, bearing the image of our 
Lord's body. At this altar is a hole in the natural rock, 
said to be the very same individual one in which the foot of 
our Lord's cross stood. Here they set up their cross with 
the bloody crucified image upon it ; and leaving it in that 
posture, they first sang their hymn, and then the father 
guardian, sitting in a chair before it, preached a passion- 
sermon in Italian. 

" At about one yard and a half distant from the hole in 
which the foot of the cross was fixed is seen that memo- 
rable cleft in the rock, said to have been made by the earth- 
quake which happened at the suffering of the God of 



DESCRIPTION OF JERUSALEM. 141 



nature ; when, as St. Matthew witnesseth, the rocks rent and 
the very graves were opened. This cleft, or what now ap- 
pears of it, is about a span wide at its upper part, and two 
deep ; after which it closes. But it opens again below, as 
you may see in another chapel contiguous to the side of 
Calvary, and runs down to an unknown depth in the earth. 
That this rent was made by the earthquake that happened 
at our Lord's passion there is only tradition to prove ; but 
that it is a natural and genuine breach, and not counter- 
feited by any art, the sense and reason of every one that 
sees it may convince him ; for the sides of it fit like two tal- 
lies to each other, and yet it runs in such intricate windings 
as could not well be counterfeited by art, nor arrived at by 
any instruments. 

" The ceremony of the passion being over, and the guar- 
dian's sermon ended, two friars, personating, the one Joseph 
of Arimathea, the other Nicodemus, approached the cross, 
and with a most solemn, concerned air, both of aspect and 
behaviou,, drew out the great nails, and took down the 
feigned body from the cross. It was an effigies so con- 
trived that its limbs were soft and flexible, as if they had 
been real flesh ; and nothing could be more surprising than 
to see the two pretended mourners bend down the arms 
which were before extended, and dispose them upon the 
trunk in such a manner as is usual in corpses. The body 
being taken down from the cross was received in a fair large 
winding-sheet, and carried down from Calvary ; the whole 
company attending as before to the stone of Unction. This 
is taken for the very place where the precious body of our 
Lord was anointed and prepared for the burial. Here they 
laid down their imaginary corpse ; and casting over it seve- 
ral sweet powders and spices, wrapped it up in the winding- 
sheet. While this was doing they sang their proper hymn, 
and afterward one of the friars preached in Arabic a funeral- 
sermon. These obsequies being finished, they carried off 
their fancied corpse and laid it in the Sepulchre, shutting 
up the door till Easter morning. And now, after so many 
sermons, and so long, not to say tedious, a ceremony, it may 
well be imagined that, the weariness of the congregation, 
as well as the hour of the night, made it needful to go to 
rest."* 

* Journey, p. 7-L 



142 



DESCRIPTION OF JERUSALEM. 



Easter-eve passed without any remarkable observance,— 
a period of leisure which was employed by many of the pil- 
grims in having their arms marked with the usual ensigns 
of Jerusalem. " The artists who undertake the operation 
do it in this manner ; they have stamps of wood of any 
figure that you desire, which they first print off upon your 
arm with powder of charcoal, then taking two very fine 
needles tied close together, and dipping them often, like a 
pen, in certain ink compounded, as I was informed, of gun- 
powder and ox-gall, they make with them small punctures 
all along the lines of the figure which they have printed ; 
and then, washing the part in wine, conclude the work. 
The punctures they make with great quickness and dex- 
terity, and with scarce any smart, seldom piercing so deep 
as to draw blood. In the afternoon of this day the congre- 
gation was assembled in the area before the holy grave, 
where the friars spent some hours in singing over the 
Lamentations of Jeremiah ; which function, with the usual 
procession to the holy places, was all the ceremony required 
by the ritual of the place. 5 ' 

On Easter-day the scene was changed from gloom to the 
most lively congratulation. " The clouds of the former 
morning were cleared up ; and the friars put on a face of 
joy and serenity, as if it had been the real juncture of our 
Lord's resurrection. Nor doubtless was this joy feigned, 
whatever their mourning might be ; this being the day on 
which their Lenten disciplines expired, and they were now 
come to a full belly again. The mass was celebrated this 
morning j ust before the Holy Sepulchre, being the most emi- 
nent place in the church ; where the father guardian had a 
throne erected, and being arrayed in episcopal robes, with 
a mitre on his head, in the sight of the Turks he gave the 
Host to all that were disposed to receive it ; not refusing it 
to children of seven or eight years old. This office being 
ended, we made our exit out of the Sepulchre, and returning 
to the convent, dined with the friars."* 

The latest travellers in Palestine witnessed similar ob- 
servances on the same solemn occasion, none of which were 
in the least calculated to edify an enlightened mind, an4 



* Journey, p. 76. 



DESCRIPTION OF JERUSALEM. 



143 



many of them such as could not be contemplated without 
feelings of just indignation, mingled with contempt. 

There is no greater obstacle to the propagation of Chris- 
tianity among the Syrian tribes, arid more especially among 
the Turks and Jews, than the foolish exhibitions which dis^ 
grace the return of the principal festivals in the Holy Land. 
The mummeries already described could not fail to be suf- 
ficiently revolting to a people who permit not any image or 
representation of created things, even in the uses of ordinary 
life. Still, the sincerity and apparent devotion with which 
the ceremony of the crucifixion was performed might, in 
some degree, atone for the unseemly method adopted by the 
monks to commemorate an event at once so solemn and im- 
portant. But what shall be said in defence of the manifest 
fraud which is annually practised in Jerusalem on Easter- 
eve by the Greek church, when the credulous multitude are 
taught to believe that fire descends from heaven into the 
Holy Sepulchre to kindle their lamps and torches ] 

Upon comparing the description given by Maundrell with 
the accounts of the latest travellers, we perceive that nearly 
a century and a half has passed aw r ay without producing 
any improvement, and that the friars of the present age are 
probably not less ignorant or dishonest than their predeces- 
sors five hundred years ago. " They began their disorders 
by running round the Holy Sepulchre with all their might 
and swiftness, crying out as they went huia, which signifies 
this is he, or this is it, — an expression by which they assert 
the verity of the Christian religion. After they had by these 
religious circulations and clamours turned their heads and 
inflamed their madness, they began to act the most antic 
tricks and postures in a thousand shapes of distraction. 
Sometimes they dragged one another along the floor all 
round the Sepulchre ; sometimes they set one man upright 
upon another's shoulders, and in this posture marched 
round ; sometimes they tumbled round the Sepulchre after 
the manner of tumblers on the stage. In a word, nothing 
can be imagined more rude or extravagant than what was 
acted upon this occasion^"* 

" The Greeks first set out in a procession round the Holy 
Sepulchre, and immediately at their heels followed the Ar- 



* Maundrell's Journey, p. 94, 



144 DESCRIPTION OF JERUSALEM. 

menians. In this order they compassed the Holy Sepulchre 
thrice, having produced all their gallantry of standards, 
streamers, crucifixes, and embroidered habits. Towards 
the end of this procession there was a pigeon came flutter- 
ing into the cupola over the Sepulchre, at sight of which 
there was a greater shout and clamour than before. This 
bird, the Latins told us, was purposely let fly by the Greeks 
to deceive the people into an opinion that it was a visible 
descent of the Holy Ghost. The procession being over, the 
suffragan of the Greek patriarch and the principal Arme- 
nian bishop approached to the door of the Sepulchre, and, 
cutting the string with which it is fastened and sealed, en- 
tered in, shutting the door after them, all the candles and 
lamps within having been before extinguished in the pres- 
ence of the Turks and other witnesses. The exclamations 
were doubled as the miracle drew nearer to its accomplish- 
ment; and the people pressed with such vehemence towards 
the door of the Sepulchre that it was not in the power of 
the Turks to keep them off. The cause of their pressing in 
this manner is, the great desire they have to light their can- 
dles at the holy flame as soon as it is first brought out of 
the Sepulchre, it being esteemed the most sacred and pure 
as coming immediately from heaven. The two miracle- 
mongers had not been above a minute in the Holy Sepul- 
chre when the glimmering of the holy fire was seen, or 
imagined to appear, through some chinks of the door ; and, 
certainly, Bedlam itself never saw such an unruly transport 
as was produced in the mob at this sight. 

" Immediately after, out came two priests with blazing 
torches in their hands, which they held up at the door of 
the Sepulchre ; while the people thronged about with inex- 
pressible ardour, every one striving to obtain a part of the 
first and purest flame. The Turks, in the mean time, with 
huge clubs laid on without mercy ; but all this could not 
repel them, the excess of their fury making them insensible 
of pain. Those that got the fire applied it immediately to 
their beards, faces, and bosoms, pretending that it would not 
burn like an earthly flame. But I plainly saw none of them 
could endure this experiment long enough to make good that 
pretension. So many hands being employed, you may be 
sure it could not be long before innumerable tapers were 
lighted. The whole church, galleries, and every place 



/ 



DESCRIPTION OF JERUSALEM. 145 



seemed instantly to be in a flame ; and with this illumina- 
tion the ceremony ended. 

" It must be owned that those two within the Sepulchre 
performed their part with great quickness and dexterity ; 
but the behaviour of the rabble without very much discredited 
the miracle. The Latins take a great deal of pains to ex- 
pose this ceremony as a most shameful imposture and a 
scandal to the Christian religion,— perhaps out of envy that 
others should be masters of so gainful a business. But the 
Greeks and Armenians pin their faith upon it ; such is the 
deplorable unhappiness of their priests, that having acted 
the cheat so long already, they are forced now to stand to it 
for fear of endangering the apostacy of their people. Going 
out of church after the rant was over, we saw several people 
gathered about the Stone of Unction, who, having got a good 
store of candles lighted with the holy fire, were employed 
in daubing pieces of linen with the wicks of them and the 
melting wax, which pieces of linen were designed for wind- 
ing-sheets. And it is the opinion of these poor people, that 
if they can but have the happiness to be buried in a shroud 
smutted with this celestial fire, it will certainly secure them 
from the flames of hell."* 

Dr. Richardson, who witnessed the same pitiful cere- 
mony, is not inclined to give much honour to the performers 
in respect to skill or dexterous manipulation. On the con- 
trary, he is of opinion that there is not a pyrotechnist in 
London who could not have improved the exhibition. From 
the station which he occupied in the church, being the 
organ-loft of the Roman Catholic division, he distinctly saw 
the flame issuing from a burning substance placed within 
the tomb, and which was raised and lowered according to 
circumstances. The priests meant to be very artful, but 
were in reality very ignorant. Like the Druids of old, no 
one, under the pain of excommunication, dared to light his 
torch at that of another ; every individual was bound to de- 
rive his flame from the miraculous spark that descended 
from above, and which could only be conveyed by the hands 
of the chief priest, f 

Having seen the exhibition of this vile and infamous 

* Journey, p. 96. 

t " Je ne decrirai pas la suite des ceremonies r£ligieuses qui occupent 
le reste de la semaine sainte ; c'est un recit qui peut bien edifier des ame* 

N 



146 DESCRIPTION OF JERUSALEM. 



delusion, the traveller naturally inquires what credit he ought 
to give to the historical statements and local descriptions 
derived from the Christians who now occupy Jerusalem. 
Are the honoured spots within these walls really what the 
guardians of the metropolitan church declare them to be ? 
Is the Mount Calvary shown at this day in the holy city the 
actual place where Christ expired upon the cross to redeem 
the human race 1 Is the Sepulchre there exhibited really 
that of the just man Joseph of Arimathea, in which the 
body of the blessed Jesus was laid 1 Or are all these merely 
convenient spots, fixed on at random, and consecrated to 
serve the interested views of a crafty priesthood ]* 

We agree in the conclusion, that it is of no consequence 
to the Christian faith in what way these questions shall be 
determined. The great facts on which the history of the 
gospel is founded are not so closely connected with par- 
ticular spots of earth or sacred buildings as to be rendered 
doubtful by any mistake in the choice of a locality. Nor is 
there any material discrepancy between the opinions of 
Chateaubriand, which we are inclined to adopt, and those 
of Dr. Clarke, who treats with contempt all the traditions 
respecting holy places ; for the outline may be correct, 

devotes, mais non pas plaire a quelqu'un qui lit un voyage pour s'in- 
struire et s'amuser. 

" II n'en est pas de m&me d'une pratique superstitieuse des Grecs 
schismatiques, dont la bixarrerie ne laissera pas de divertir un moment. 

" Cette secte, abusee par ses pretres, croit de bonne foi que Dieu fait 
annuellement un miracle pour lui envoyer le feu sacre. 

" A en croire les pr£tres Grecs, cette faveur divine, dont on ne peut pas 
douter, est un preuve insigne de l'excellence de leur communion. Mais 
ne pourrait-on pas objecter aux Grecs, que les Armenieno et les Cofes r 
qu'ils traitent d'heretiques, participent a cette m£me grace. Ennemis 
acharnes les uns des autres, les ministres de ces trois sectes se reu- 
nissent en apparence pour la ceremonie du feu sacre. Cette reconcilia- 
tion momentanee n'est due qu'a l'interet de tous ; separement ils seraient 
obliges de payer au gouverneur, pour la permission de faire la miracle,, 
une somme aussi forte que cette qu'ils donnent ensemble. 

" Ces pretres portent la fourberie jusqu'a vouloir persuader au peuple 
que le feu sacre ne brule pas ceux qui sont en etat de grace. Ils se 
frottent les mains d'une certaine eau, qui les garantit de la brulure a la 
premiere approche, et par ce moyen ne se font aucun mal en touchant 
leurs cierges. Leur proselytes sont jaloux de les imiter ; mais comme ils 
n'ont pas leur recette, bien sou vent ils se brulent les doigts et le visage : 
il arrive dela que les pretres, paraissant jouir exclufsivement de la grace 
de Dieu, en sont plus respectes et mieux payes."— Mariti, Voyages, &c, 
torn. ii. p. 340. 

* Richardson, vol. ii. p. 333. 



DESCRIPTION OF JERUSALEM. 



147 



although the minuter details are open to a just suspicion. 
For example, it is now extremely difficult to trace the bound- 
aries of Calvary ; the effects of time and the operations of 
the siege under the Roman prince have obliterated some of 
the features by which that remarkable scene was distin- 
guished ; it has even ceased to present the appearance of a 
mount, — an appellation, by-the-way, which is nowhere given 
to it in Scripture. But it does not follow that the Chris- 
tians who returned from Pella to inhabit the ruins of the 
sacred metropolis should have been equally ignorant of its 
extent and situation ; nor is it at all probable that places so 
interesting to the affections of the infant church would be 
allowed to fall into a speedy oblivion. 

The main error of the modern priests at Jerusalem arises 
from an anxiety to exhibit every thing to which any allusion 
is made by the evangelical historians ; not remembering 
that the lapse of ages and the devastation of successive 
wars have destroyed much, and disguised more, which the 
early disciples could most readily identify. The mere cir- 
cumstance that almost all the events which attended the 
close of our Saviour's ministry are crowded into one scene, 
covered by the roof of a single church, might excite a very 
justifiable doubt as to the exactness of the topography main- 
tained by the friars of Mount Moriah. " This edifice," 
says Mr. Maundrell, " is less than one hundred paces long, 
and not more than sixty wide ; and yet it is so contrived, 
that it is supposed to contain under its roof twelve or thir- 
teen sanctuaries, or places consecrated to a more than ordi- 
nary veneration, by being reputed to have some particular 
actions done in them relating to the death and resurrection 
of Christ."* 

All that can now be affirmed, observes Dr. Clarke, with 
any show of reason, is this, " that if Helena had reason to 
believe she could identify the spot where the Sepulchre was, 
she took especial care to remove every trace of it, in Jrcler 
to introduce the fanciful and modern work which now re- 
mains. The place may be the same pointed out to her; 
but not a remnant of the original Sepulchre can now be 
ascertained. Yet, with our skeptical feelings thus awakened, 
it may prove how powerful the effect of sympathy is, if we 



Journey, p, 69. 



148 



DESCRIPTION OF JERUSALEM 



confess, that when we entered into the supposed Sepulchre, 
and beheld, by the light of lamps there continually burning, 
the venerable figure of an aged monk, with streaming eyes 
and a long white beard, pointing to 8 the place where the 
Lord lay,' and calling upon us to kneel and experience par- 
don for our sins, — we did kneel, and w r e participated in the 
feelings of more credulous pilgrims. Captain Culverhouse, 
in whose mind the ideas of religion and of patriotism were 
inseparable, with firmer emotion, drew from its scabbard 
the sword he had so often wielded in the defence of his 
country, and placed it upon the tomb. Humbler comers 
heaped the memorials of an accomplished pilgrimage ; and 
while their sighs alone interrupted the silence of the sanc- 
tuary a solemn service was begun."* 

It is observed by the author of the Itineraire, that the 
ancient travellers were extremely fortunate in not being 
obliged to enter into all these critical disquisitions ; in the 
first place, because they found in their readers that religion 
which never contends against truth ; and, secondly, because 
every mind was convinced that the only way of seeing a 
country as it is must be to see it with all its traditions and 
recollections. It is, in fact, with the Bible as his guide that 
a traveller ought to visit the Holy Land. If we are deter- 
mined to carry with us a spirit of cavil and contradiction, 
Judea is not worth our going so far to examine it. What 
should we say to a man who, in traversing Greece and Italy, 
should think of nothing but contradicting Homer and Vir- 
gil ? Such, however, is the course adopted by too many 
modern travellers ; evidently the effect of our vanity, which 
would excite a high idea of our own abilities, and at the 
same time fill us with disdain for those of other people. f 

A short time after M. Chateaubriand visited Jerusalem, 
the church of the Holy Sepulchre was destroyed by fire ; 
and although it has been since repaired, it is admitted that 
both the architecture and the internal decorations are much 
inferior to those of the original edifice. The general plan 
of the whole building, however, as well as the arrangement 
of the holy stations, are so exactly preserved, that the 
descriptions of the earliest writers apply as correctly to its 



* Travels, vol, iv. p. 315. 



t Vol. ii. p. 21. 



DESCRIPTION OF JERUSALEM. 



149 



present as to its former state. It is true, that the tombs 
of Godfrey de Bouillon and of Baldwin his brother, which 
called forth the enthusiastic admiration of the French author 
just named, have been annihilated by the malignant Greeks, 
so that not a vestige remains to mark the spot whereon they 
stood. The Corinthian columns of fine marble which for- 
merly adorned the interior being rendered useless by the 
fire, the dome is now supported by tall slender pillars of 
masonry, plastered on the outside, and so closely grouped 
together as to produce the worst effect. We are told, 
indeed, that the meanness of every thing about the archi- 
tecture of the central dome, and of the whole rotunda which 
surrounds the Sepulchre itself, can only be exceeded by the 
wretched taste of its painted decorations.* 

It was of the older building that the Vicomte made the 
following remarks : — u The church of the Holy Sepulchre, 
composed of several churches erected upon an unequal sur- 
face, illumined by a multitude of lamps, is singularly mys" 
terious ; a sombre light pervades it, favourable to piety and 
profound devotion. Christian priests of various sects inhabit 
different parts of the edifice. From the arches above, where 
they nestle like pigeons, from the chapels below and subter- 
raneous vaults, their songs are heard at all hours both of 
the day and night. The organ of the Latin monks, the 
cymbals of the Abyssinian priest, the voice of the Greek 
caloyer, the prayer of the solitary Armenian, the plaintive 
accents of the Coptic friar, alternately, or all at once, assail 
your ear. You know not whence these accents of praise 
proceed ; you inhale the perfume of incense without per- 
ceiving the hand that burns it : you merely observe the 
pontiff, who is going to celebrate the most awful of mys- 
teries on the very spot where they were accomplished, pass 
quickly by, glide behind the columns, and vanish in the 
gloom of the temple. 

" Christian readers will perhaps inquire what were my 
feelings upon entering this sacred place. I really cannot 
tell. So many reflections rushed at once upon my mind, 
that I was unable to dwell upon any particular idea. I 
continued nearly half an hour upon my knees in the little 



* Buckingham's Travels, vol. i. p. 384. 
N2 



150 DESCRIPTION OF JERUSALEM 



chamber of the Holy Sepulchre, with my eyes riveted upon 
the stone, from which I had not the power to turn them. 
One of the two monks who accompanied me remained pros- 
trate on the marble by my side, while the other, with the 
Testament in his hand, read to me by the light of the lamps 
the passages relating to the sacred tomb. All I can say is, 
that when I beheld this triumphant Sepulchre, I felt nothing 
but my own weakness ; and that when my guide exclaimed 
with St. Paul, G death, where is thy sting] O grave, 
where is thy victory ! I listened, as if death were about 
to reply that he was conquered and enchained in this monu- 
ment. Where shall we look in antiquity for anything so 
impressive, so wonderful, as the last scenes described by the 
Evangelists ] These are not the absurd adventures of a 
deity foreign to human nature : it is a most pathetic history, 
■ — a history which not only extorts tears by its beauty, but 
whose consequences, applied to the universe, have changed 
the face of the earth. I had just beheld the monuments 
of Greece, and my mind was still profoundly impressed with 
their grandeur ; but how far inferior were the sentiments 
which they excited to those I felt at the sight of the places 
commemorated in the gospel!"* 

We must not presume to follow the ardent pilgrim along 
the Via Dolorosa, the name given to the way by which the 
Saviour passed from the house of Pilate to the Mount of 
Calvary. Nor can we stop to revere the arch, called Ecce 
Homo, where, we are told, the window may still be seen 
from which the Roman judge exclaimed to the vindictive 
Jews, " Behold the Man !" We cannot resign our belief to 
the minute description which recognises the house of Simon 
the Pharisee, where Mary Magdalene confessed her sins ; 
the prison of St. Peter, and the dwelling of Mary the mother 
of Mark, in which the same apostle took refuge when he 
was set at liberty by the angel ; and the mansion of Dives, 
the rich man at whose gate the mendicant Lazarus was 
laid, full of sores. 

On crossing the small ravine which divides the modern 
city from Mount Zion, the attention of the traveller is 
drawn to three ancient monuments, or more properly ruins, 

* Travels in Greece, Palestine, Egypt, &c. vol. ii. p. 22. 





DESCRIPTION OF JERUSALEM. 



151 



covered with buildings comparatively modern, — the house 
of Caiaphas, — the place where Christ held his Last Supper, 
— and the tomb or palace of David. The first of these is 
now a church, the duty of which is performed by the Arme- 
nians ; the second, consecrated by the affecting solemnity, 
with the memory of which it is still associated, presents a 
mosque and a Turkish hospital ; while the third, a small 
vaulted apartment, contains only three sepulchres formed 
of dark-coloured stone. This holy hill is equally celebrated 
in the Old Testament and in the New. Here the successor 
of Saul built a city and a royal dwelling, — here he kept for 
three months the Ark of the Covenant, — here the Redeemer 
instituted the sacrament which commemorates his death, — 
here he appeared to his disciples on the day of his resur- 
rection, — and here the Holy Ghost descended on the apos- 
tles. The place hallowed by the Last Supper, if we may 
believe the early Fathers, was transformed into the first 
Christian temple the world ever saw, where St. James the 
Less was consecrated the first bishop of Jerusalem, and 
where he presided in the first council of the church. Finally, 
it was from this spot that the apostles, in compliance with 
the injunction to go and teach all nations, departed, with- 
out purse and without scrip, to seat their religion upon all 
the thrones of the earth. 

Descending Mount Zion on the east side, you perceive 
in the valley the Fountain and Pool of Siloam, so celebrated 
in the history of our Saviour's miracles. The brook itself 
is ill supplied with water, and, compared with the ideas 
formed in the mind by the fine invocation of the poet, 
usually creates disappointment. Going a few paces to the 
northward, you eome to the source of the scanty rivulet, 
which is called by some the Fountain of the Virgin, from 
an opinion that she frequently came hither to drink. It 
appears in a recess about twenty feet lower than the sur- 
face, and under an arched vault of masonry tolerably well 
executed. The rock had been originally hewn down to 
reach this pool ; and a small crooked passage, of which 
only the beginning is seen, is said to convey the water out 
of the Valley of Siloam, and to supply the means of irri- 
gating the little gardens still cultivated in that spot. Not- 
withstanding the dirty state of the water, and its harsh and 



152 



DESCRIPTION OF JERUSALEM* 



brackish taste, it is still used by devout pilgrims for diseases 
of the eye.* 

It is said to have a kind of ebb and flow, sometimes dis- 
charging its current like the Fountain of Vaucluse, at others 
retaining and scarcely suffering it to run at all. The Levites, 
we are likewise told, used to sprinkle the water of Siloam 
on the altar at the Feast of Tabernacles, saying, " Ye shall 
draw water with joy from the wells of salvation." The 
reader will find on the opposite page a representation of the 
Fountain or Pool of Siloam, as it appeared to the eye of an 
able traveller ; a considerable part of the arch having fallen 
down, or been destroyed by the barbarians who continue to 
hold Jerusalem in subjection. 

The Valley of Jehoshaphat stretches between the eastern 
walls of the city and the Mount of Olives, containing a 
great variety of objects, to which allusion is made in the 
Sacred Writings. It was sometimes called the King's Dale, 
from a reference to an event recorded in the history of 
Abraham, and was afterward distinguished by the name of 
Jehoshaphat, because that sovereign erected in it a magni- 
ficent tomb. This narrow vale seems to have always served 
as a burying-place for the inhabitants of the holy city : 
there you meet with monuments of the most remote ages, 
as well as of the most modern times : thither the descend- 
ants of Jacob resort from the four quarters of the globe, to 
yield up their last breath ; and a foreigner sells to them, for 
its weight in gold, a scanty spot of earth to cover their 
remains in the land of their forefathers. " Observing many 
Jews, whom I could easily recognise by their yellow tur- 
bans, quick dark eyes, black eyebrows, and bushy beards, 
walking about the place, and reposing along the Brook 
Kedron in a pensive mood, the pathetic language of the 
Psalmist occurred to me, as expressing the subject of their 

* The invocation alluded to must be familiar to the youngest reader : 
" Sing, Heavenly muse, that on the secret top 
Of Oreb or of Sinai didst inspire 
That shepherd who first taught the chosen seed, 
In the beginning, how the heavens and earth 
Rose out of chaos ; or, if Zion hill 
Delight thee more, and Siloa's brook that flowed 
Fast by the oracle of God ; I thence 
Invoke thy aid to my advent'rous song." 

Paradise Lost, book i. 



DESCRIPTION OF JERUSALEM; 



153 




meditation—' By the rivers we sat down and wept when we 
remembered Zion.' Upon frequently inquiring the motive 
that prompted them in attempting to go to Jerusalem, the 
answer was, « To die in the land of our fathers.' "* 

This valley or dale still exhibits a very desolate appear- 
ance. The western side is a high chalk-cliff supporting 
the walls of the city, above which you perceive Jerusalem 
itself; while the eastern acclivity is formed by the Mount 



* Travels by Rae Wilson, vol, i. p. 230, 



154 



DESCRIPTION OF JERUSALEM. 



of Olives and the Mount of Offence, so called from the 
idolatry which oppresses the fame of Solomon. These two 
hills are nearly naked, and of a dull red colour. On their 
slopes are seen, here and there, a few bleak and parched 
vines, some groves of wild olive-trees, wastes covered with 
hyssop, chapels, oratories, and mosques in ruins. At the 
bottom of the valley you discover a bridge of a single arch, 
thrown across the channel of the Brook Kedron. The 
stones in the Jewish cemetery look like a heap of rubbish at 
the foot of the Mount of Offence, below the Arab village of 
Siloane, the paltry houses of which are scarcely to be dis- 
tinguished from the surrounding sepulchres. From the 
stillness of Jerusalem, whence no smoke arises and no noise 
proceeds, — from the solitude of these hills, where no living 
creature is to be seen, — from the ruinous state of all these 
tombs, overthrown, broken, and half-open, you would ima- 
gine that the last trumpet had already sounded, and that the 
Valley of Jehoshaphat was about to render up its dead. 
- Amid this scene of desolation three monuments arrest 
the eyes of the intelligent pilgrim, — the tombs of Zachariah, 
of Absalom, and of the king whose name still distinguishes 
the valley. The first-mentioned of these is a square mass 
of rock, hewn down into form, and isolated from the quarry 
out of which it is cut by a passage of twelve or fifteen feet 
wide on three of its sides ; the fourth or western front being 
open towards the valley and to Mount Moriah, the foot of 
which is only a few yards distant. This huge stone is eight 
paces in length on each side, and about twenty feet high in 
the front, and ten feet high at the back ; the hill on which 
it stands having a steep ascent. It has four semicolumns 
cut out of the same rock on each of its faces, with a pilaster 
at each angle, all of a mixed Ionic order, and ornamented 
in bad taste. The architraves, the full moulding, and the 
deep overhanging cornice which finishes the square, are all 
perfectly after the Egyptian manner ; and the whole is sur- 
mounted by a pyramid, the sloping sides of which rise from 
the very edges of the square below, and terminate in a 
finished point. 

The body of this monument, we have already stated, is 
one solid mass of rock, as well as its semicolumns on each 
face ; but the surmounting pyramid appears to be of ma- 
sonry. Its sides, however, are perfectly smooth, like the 



DESCRIPTION OF JERUSALEM. 



155 



coated pyramids of Sahara and Dashour, and not graduated 
by stages iike those of Djizeh in Lower Egypt. 

Inconsiderable in size and paltry in its ornaments, this 
monument, as Mr. Buckingham observes, is eminently ca- 
rious. There is no appearance of an entrance into any part 
of it ; so that it seems, if a tomb, to have been as firmly 
closed as the Egyptian pyramids, and, perhaps, for the same 
respect for the repose of the dead. It is probable, indeed, 
that the original style and plan of the building are derived 
from the country of the Pharaohs ; while the Grecian col- 
umns and pilasters may be the work of a much later period, 
when the Jews had learned to combine with the massy piles 
of their more ancient architecture the elegant lightness 
which distinguished the times of the Seleucidae.* 

In the immediate vicinity is the tomb of Jehoshaphat, — a 
cavern which is more commonly called the Grotto of the 
Disciples, from an idea that they went frequently thither to 
be taught by their Divine Master. The front of this exca- 
vation has two Doric pillars of small size, but of just pro- 
portions. In the interior are three chambers, all of them 
rude and irregular in their form, in one of which were seve- 
ral gravestones, removed, we may suppose, from the open 
ground for greater security. Like all the rest, they were 
flat slabs of an oblong shape, from three to six inches in 
thickness, and evidently a portion of the limestone rock 
which composes the adjoining hills. 

Opposite to this, on the east, is the reputed tomb of Ab- 
salom, resembling nearly in the size, form, and decoration 
of its square base that of Zachariah already described, ex- 
cept that it is sculptured with the metopes and triglyphs of 
the Doric order. This is surmounted by a sharp conical 
dome, having large mouldings running round its base, and 
on the summit something like an imitation of flame. There 
is here again so strange a mixture of style and ornament, 
that one knows not to what age to attribute the monument 
as a whole. The square mass below is solid, and the Ionic 
columns which are seen on each of its faces are half-indented 
in the rock itself. The dome is of masonry, and on the 
eastern side there is a square aperture in it. Generally 
speaking, the sight of this monument rather confirms the 

* Travels in Palestine, vol i u 297, 



156 



DESCRIPTION OF JERUSALEM. 



idea suggested by the tomb of Zachariah, that the hewn 
mass of solid rock, the surmounting pyramid and dome of 
masonry, and the sculptured frieze and Ionic columns 
wrought on the faces of the square below were works of 
different periods ; being probably ancient sepulchres, the 
primitive character of which had been changed by the subse- 
quent addition of foreign ornaments. There is, besides, 
every reason to believe that this monument, represented 
below, really occupies the site of the one which was set up 
by him whose name it bears. " Now Absalom in his life- 
time had reared up for himself a pillar, which is in the 
King's Dale : for he said, I have no son to keep my name 



DESCRIPTION OF JERUSALEM 



157 



in remembrance ; and he called the pillar after his own 
name : and it is called unto this day Absalom's Place."* 

Chateaubriand is of opinion, that except the Pool of Be- 
thesda at Jerusalem, we have no remains of the primitive 
architecture of its inhabitants. This reservoir, a hundred 
and fifty feet long and forty broad, is still to be seen near 
St. Stephen's Gate, where it bounded the Temple on the 
north. The sides are walled by means of large stones joined 
. together by iron cramps, and covered with flints imbedded 
in a substance resembling plaster. Here the lambs destined 
for sacrifice were washed ; and it was on the brink of this 
pool that Christ said to the paralytic man, " Arise, take up 
thy bed and walk." It receives a melancholy interest from 
the fact that it is probably the last remnant of Jerusalem 
as it appeared in the days of Solomon and of his immediate 
successors. 

It cannot be denied that the tombs in the Valley of Je- 
hoshaphat display an alliance of Egyptian and Grecian 
taste ; and, in naturalizing in their capital the architecture 
of Memphis and of Athens, it is equally certain that the 
Jews mixed with it the forms of their own peculiar style. 
From this combination resulted a heterogeneous kind of 
structure, forming, as it were, the link between the Pyramids 
and the Parthenon, — monuments in which you discover a 
sombre, yet bold and elevated genius, associated with a 
pleasing and cultivated imagination. 

Our limits forbid us to follow the footsteps of the pilgrim 
in his minute survey of the " Sepulchres of the Kings," 
which, it is acknowledged, cannot be traced back to a re- 
moter era than that of the Grecian dynasty at Antioch and 
Damascus. There are several other tombs and grottoes, to 
which tradition has attached venerable names, and even 
consecrated them as the scene of important events ; but as 
they are not remarkable on any other account, we shall not 
extend to an undue length our description of the holy places 
under the walls of Jerusalem. 

We shall simply remark, that a difference of opinion ex- 
ists among modern travellers in regard to the extent of the 
ancient city, the ground which it actually covered, the 
changes that it has since undergone in point of locality, and 



* 2 £amnel xviii. ]8. Travel* in Palestine^ 1 - \. p. 302. 



158 



DESCRIPTION OF JERUSALEM. 



hence, m respect to the position of some of the more promi- 
nent objects which attract the attention of the inquisitive 
tourist in our own days. Dr. Clarke has distinguished him- 
self by some bold speculations on this head, the effect of 
which is to derange all the received notions relative to the 
scene of the crucifixion and the place of the Holy Sepulchre. 
It will indeed be readily granted, that it is a matter of very 
small importance to the faith of a Christian to determine 
whether the decease which was accomplished at Jerusalem 
took place on the north-western or the south-eastern ex- 
tremity of that metropolis. But as the history and tradition 
of many ages have fixed the spot where the cross was 
erected and where the new tomb in the rock had its situa- 
tion, it is requisite that the arguments of a writer who him- 
self pays so little respect to authority should be examined 
with attention. In this case, it is obvious, an inspection 
of the ground candidly and distinctly reported is of much 
more weight than the most ingenious reasoning if destitute 
of facts ; on which account, we are happy to have it in our 
power to refer to the journal of a learned gentleman hitherto 
unpublished, who about three years ago travelled in Syria 
and Palestine. 

" We passed by the place of St. Stephen's martyrdom 
down into the Valley of Jehoshaphat. This valley, inde- 
pendently of associations, is highly picturesque. It is deep 
and narrow ; the lower part is green with scattered olives. 
The slope up towards the city is also smooth and green, and 
crowned by the towers and battlements. On ascending the 
Mount of Olives, which we did towards the south, we had 
a splendid view of Jerusalem. The chief ornaments are the 
two domes of the Holy Sepulchre, the mosque of Omar, and 
another large mosque with a smaller dome ; but the white 
houses make a good show, and the walls are picturesque. 
On looking at Jerusalem from this place, the great features 
seemed to me to agree entirely with the established maps, 
and Dr. Clarke's theory appeared quite untenable. The 
only difficulty is, that there is no valley which runs up all 
the way so as to divide entirely Mount Zion from Mount 
MoriaL. A ravine does run far enough to cut off the Tem- 
ple, but no more. The extent of this difficulty must depend 
on the description left us of the Tyropaeum and Millo. 
Was there a deep valley such as time and change might not 



\ 



DESCRIPTION OF JERUSALEM 



159 



have obliterated ? The people of the convent gave the 
name of the Mount of Offence to a low hill on the south of 
the Mount of Olives ; but Clarke seems to think that the 
real Mount of Offence is that divided by Jehinnom from Zion, 
and called by our guide Monte de Mai Consiglio. We 
visited the Mohammedan chapel over the place of the Ascen- 
sion, and saw the alleged print of Christ's foot. W e next 
went to the place called Viri Galilaei (ye men of Galilee), 
and, after looking in vain for Dr. Clarke's pagan remains, 
descended towards the Cave of the Prophets. We saw the 
well where Nehemiah found the tire of the altar, and then 
went up the Valley of Hinnom ; first to the tomb called the 
Crypt of the Apostles, close to the Aceldama, or Field of 
Blood. We saw many other grottoes ; one had ms dyiag 
2ta>v inscribed upon it, as had another much farther up. 
Near this last was that which Clarke maintained to be the 
Holy Sepulchre. We saw one which would do very well 
for it ; but so would many others. This one was a cave, 
with a place for a body cut out in the back part of it, but 
raised like a stone trough, not sunk in the floor. There is, 
of course, not a shadow of reason for thinking Clarke's cave 
to be the real one, and very little that I can see for doubting 
that the nominal Holy Sepulchre is so in fact, or, rather, 
that it is on the site of the real one, which must have been 
destroyed when Adrian erected his temple to Venus on the 
spot. From these caves we went by the Pool of Bathsheba 
to the Bethlehem Gate, and so along the west side of the 
town to the Tombs of the Judges and Kings, which lie north 
or north-west of the city. I observed large foundations of 
ancient walls and heaps of rubbish west of the modern 
town, where Clarke seems to assume that there was an- 
ciently no part of the city. There and on the north I also 
observed wells opening into large covered reservoirs for 
water. We entered only c ue of the Tombs of the Judges, 
the rest being insignificant. That one was large, with a 
pediment which had dentiles and other Greek ornaments. 
Inside there were at least three chambers, surrounded by 
receptacles for bodies. In returning we went to the Tombs 
of the Kin gs, which, like the others, are cut out of the rock, 
and, like them too, have Grecian ornaments. There is one 
large cave ; the front has a handsome entablature, the upper 
part ornamented with alternate circular garlands, bunches 



160 



DESCRIPTION OF JERUSALEM. 



of grapes, and an ornament of acanthus leaves ; the lower 
with a rich band of foliage disposed with much elegance."* 
Hence, it appears that the weight of evidence preponde- 
rates decidedly in favour of the common opinions in regard 
to the form of the ancient city and the places which are 
usually denominated holy. Why, then, should any one 
attempt to disturb the belief or acquiescence of the Chris- 
tian world on a subject concerning which all nations have 
hitherto found reason to agree ] The members of the primi- 
tive church had better means than we have of being fully in- 
formed respecting the scenes of the evangelical history ; and 
it is manifest, that amid all the changes which ensued in 
Jerusalem, either from conquest or superstition, nothing 
was more unlikely than that the faithful should forget the 
sacred spot where their redemption was completed, or that 
they should consent to transfer their veneration to any 
other, f 

* See Tour of tbe Holy Land, by the Rev. Robert Morehead, D.D. ; in 
the Appendix to which are extracts from this anonymous manuscript. 

t u Having so often mentioned Clarke, I must say, that although an 
animated and interesting writer, and not incorrect in his descriptions, he 
is more deficient in judgment than any traveller I am acquainted with ; 
and I do not recollect an instance, either here or in Egypt, where he has 
attempted to speculate, without falling into some very decided error. I 
mention this the more, as his enthusiasm and conviction of the truth of 
his own theories led me formerly to place great faith in liis authority." — 
Anonymous Journal. 



t 



DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY, ETC, 161 



CHAPTER VI. 

Description of the Country South and East of Jerusalem, 

Garden of Gethsemane — Tornb of Virgin Mary — Grottoes on Mount of 
Olives — View of the City — Extent and Boundaries— View of Bethany 
and Dead Sea— Bethlehem — Convent— Church of the Nativity de- 
scribed — Paintings— Music — Population of Bethlehem— Pools of Solo- 
mon— Dwelling of Simon the Leper— Of Mary Magdalene — Tower of 
Simeon— Tomb of Rachel— Convent of John — Fine Church— Tekoa — 
Bethulia— Hebron — Sepulchre of Patriarchs — Albaid — Kerek — Ex- 
tremity of Dead Sea — Discoveries of Bankes, Legh, and Irby and Man- 
gles — Convent of St. Saba— Valley of Jordan — Mountains— Descrip- 
tion of Lake Asphaltites— Remains of ancient Cities in its Basin — Qual- 
ity of its Waters — Apples of Sodom— Tacitus, Seetzen, Hasselquist, 
Chateaubriand— Width of River Jordan— Jericho— Village of Rihhah 
— Balsam— Fountain of Elisha— Mount of Temptation— Place of 
Blood — Anecdote of SirF. Henniker — Fountain of the Apostles— Re- 
turn to Jerusalem— Markets— Costume — Science — Arts — Language — 
Jews— Present Condition of that People. 

In proceeding from Jerusalem towards Bethany, the 
traveller skirts the Mount of Olives ; or, if he wishes to 
enjoy *he magnificent view which it presents, both of the 
city and of the extensive tract watered by the Jordan, he 
ascends its heights, and at the same time inspects the 
remains of sacred architecture still to be seen on its summit. 
As he passes from the eastern gate, the Garden of Gethsem- 
ane meets his eyes, as well as the tomb which bears the 
name of the Blessed Virgin. This has a building over it 
with a pretty front, although the Grecian ornaments sculp- 
tured in marble are not in harmony with the pointed arch 
at the entrance. It is approached by a paved court, now 
a raised way, leading from the Mount of Olives over the 
Brook Kedron. The descent into it is formed by a hand- 
some flight of steps composed of marble, being about fifty 
in number and of a noble breadth. About midway down 
are two arched recesses in the sides, said to contain the 
ashes of St. Anne, the mother of Mary, and of Joseph her 
husband. Reaching the bottom of the stairs, the visiter is 
shown the tomb of the holy Virgin herself, which is in the 
form of % simple bench coated with marble. Here the 

O 2 



162 DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY 



Greeks and Armenians say mass by turns, and near it there 
is an humble altar for the Syrian Christians ; while oppo- 
site to it is one for the Copts, consisting of earth, and en- 
tirely destitute of lamps, pictures, covering, and every 
other species of ornament. Chateaubriand tells us that 
the Turks had a portion of this grotto : Buckingham asserts 
that they have no right to enter it, nor could he " learn 
from the keepers of the place that they ever had whereas 
the author of the Anonymous Journal, from which we have 
already quoted, states distinctly that " there is a place 
reserved for the Mussulmans to pray, which at the Virgin's 
Tomb one would not expect to be much in request." So 
much for the clashing of authorities on the part of writers 
who could have no wish to deceive ! 

There are various other grottoes on the acclivity of the 
hill, meant to keep alive the remembrance of certain occur- 
rences which are either mentioned in the gospel, or have 
been transmitted to the present age by oral tradition. 
Among these is one which is supposed to be the scene of 
the agony and the bloody sweat ; a second, that marks 
the place where St. Peter and the two sons of Zebedee fell 
asleep when their Master retired to pray ; and a third, indi- 
cating the spot whereon Judas betrayed the Son of Man 
with a kiss. Here also is pointed out the rock from which 
our Saviour predicted the sack of Jerusalem and the 
destruction of the Temple,- — that dreadful visitation, of 
which the traces are still most visible both within and 
around the walls. The curious pilgrim is further edified 
by the sight of a cavern where the apostles were taught the 
Lord's Prayer ; and of another where the same individuals 
at a later period met together to compose their Creed. On 
the principal top of the Mount of Olives, — for the elevated 
ground presents three separate summits, — are a mosque and 
the remains of a church. The former is distinguished by a 
lofty minaret which commands an extensive prospect ; but 
the latter is esteemed more remarkable, as containing the 
piece of rock imprinted with the mark of our Saviour's foot 
while in the act of ascension. 

But the view of the venerable metropolis itself, which 
stretches out its lanes and sacred enclosures under the eye 
of the traveller, is still more interesting than the recapitula- 
tion of ambiguous relics. It occupies an irregular square 



SOUTH AND EAST OF JERUSALEM 



163 



©r about two miles and a half in circumference. Eusebius 
gave a measurement of twenty-seven stadia, amounting to 
nearly a mile more than its present dimensions ; a differ- 
ence which can easily be explained, by adverting to the 
alterations made on the line of fortifications by the Sara- 
cens and Turks, especially on the north-west and western 
extremities of the town. Its shortest apparent side is that 
which faces the east, and in this is the supposed gate of 
the ancient Temple, shut up by the Mussulmans from a 
superstitious motive, and the small projecting sJ,one on 
which their prophet is to sit when he shall judge the world 
assembled in the vale below. The southern side is exceed- 
ingly irregular, taking quite a zigzag direction ; the south- 
western entrance being terminated by a mosque built over 
the supposed sepulchre of David, on the elevation of Mount 
Zion. The form and exact direction of the western and 
northern walls are not distinctly seen from the position now 
assumed ; but every part of them appears to be a modern 
work, and executed at the same time. They are flanked at 
certain distances by square towers, and have battlements all 
along their summits, with loopholes for arrows or musketry 
close to the top. Their height is about fifty feet, but they 
are not surrounded by a ditch. The northern wall runs over 
ground which declines slightly outward ; the eastern wall 
passes straight along the brow of Mount Moriah, with the 
deep valley of Jehoshaphat below ; the southern wall crosses 
Mount Zion, with the vale of Hinnom at its feet ; and the 
western wall is carried over a more uniform level, near the 
summit of the bare hills which terminate at the Jaffa gate.* 

* Buckingham, vol. i. p. 316. — The following words, put into the 
mouth of Titus by the eloquent author of the " Fall of Jerusalem," will 
be read with interest in connexion with the view just given. The son 
of Vespasian stands on the Mount of Olives : — 

" It must be — 
And yet it moves me, Romans ! it confounds 
The counsels of my firm philosophy, 
That Ruin's merciless ploughshare must pass o'er 
And barren salt be sown on yon proud city. 
As on our olive-crowned hill we stand, 
Where Kedron at our feet its scanty waters 
Distils from stone to stone with gentle motion, 
As through a valley sacred to sweet Peace. 
How boldly doth it front us ! how majestically ! 
Like a luxurious vineyard, the hiU-side 



164 DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY 



Turning towards the east, the traveller sees at the foot 
of the hill the little village of Bethany, so often mentioned 
in the history of our Lord and of his personal followers ; 
and at a greater distance, a little more on the left, he beholds 
the magnificent scenery of the Jordan and the Dead Sea. 

There are two roads from Jerusalem to Bethany ; the one 
passing over the Mount of Olives ; the other, the shorter 
and easier, winding round the eastern side of it. This 
village is now both small and poor, the cultivation of the 
soil around it being very much neglected by the indolent 
Arabs into whose hands it has fallen. Here are shown the 
ruins of a house, said to have belonged to Lazarus whom 
our Saviour raised from the dead ; and, in the immediate 
neighbourhood, the faithful pilgrim is invited to devotion 
in a grotto, which is represented as the actual tomb wherein 



Is hung with marble fabrics, line on line, 

Terrace o'er terrace, nearer still, and nearer 

To the bine heavens. Here bright and sumptuous palaces, 

With cool and verdant gardens interspersed ; 

Here towers of war that frown in massy strength. 

While over all hangs the rich purple eve, 

As conscious of its being her last farewell 

Of light and glory to that fated city. 

And as our clouds of battle, dust, and smoke 

Are melted into air, behold the Temple, 

In undisturbed and lone serenity, 

Finding itself a solemn sanctuary 

In the profound of heaven ! It stands before us 

A mount of snow fretted with golden pinnacles ! 

The very sun, as though he worshipped there, 

Lingers upon the gilded cedar roofs ; 

And down the long and branching porticoes, 

On every flowery sculptured capital 

Glitters the homage of his parting beams. 

By Hercules ! the sight might almost win 

The offended majesty of Rome to mercy." 

Old Sandys, a simple and amusing writer, describes Jerusalem as 
follows: — " This citie, once sacred and glorious, elected by God for his 
seate. and seated in the midst of nations, — like a diadem crowning the 
head of the mountaines, — the theatre of mysteries and miracles, — was 
founded by Melchisedek (who is said to be the son of Noah, and that 
not unprobably) about the year of the world 2023. and called Salem (by 
the Gentiles Solyma), which signifyeth Peace : who reigned here fifty 
years.— This citie is seated on a rockie mountaine ; every way to be 
ascended (except a little on the north) with steep ascents and deep valleys 
naturally fortified ; for the most part environed with other not far removed 
mountaines, as if placed in the midst of an amphitheater." — Lib. iii. p. 1M. 



SOUTH AND EAST OF JERUSALEM. 167 



the miracle was performed. The dwellings of Simon the 
Leper, of Mary Magdalene, and of Martha are pointed 
out by the Mussulmans, who traffic on the credulity of 
ignorant Christians. Nay, they undertake to identify the 
spot where the barren fig-tree withered under the curse, 
and the place where Judas put an end to his life, oppressed 
by a more dreadful malediction. 

There is no traveller of any nation, whatever may be 
his creed or his impressions in regard to the gospel, who 
does not make the usual journey from the Jewish capital 
to Bethlehem the place of our Lord's nativity. The road, 
as we find related, passes over ground extremely rocky and 
barren, diversified only by some cultivated patches bearing 
a scanty crop of grain, and by banks of wild-flowers which 
grow in great profusion. On the way the practised guide 
points out the ruined tower of Simeon, who upon beholding 
the infant Messiah expressed his readiness to leave this 
world ; the Monastery of Elias, now in possession of the 
Greeks ; and the tomb of Rachel, rising in a rounded top 
like the whitened sepulchre of an Arab sheik. " This," 
says the honest Maundrell, " may probably be the true 
place of her interment ; but the present sepulchral monu- 
ment can be none of that which Jacob erected, for it appears 
plainly to be a modern and Turkish structure." Farther on 
is the well of which David longed to drink, and of which his 
mighty men, at the risk of their lives, procured him a sup- 
ply ; and here opens to view, in a great valley, that most 
interesting of all pastoral scenes, where the angel of the 
Omnipotent appeared by night to the shepherds, to announce 
the glad tidings that Christ was born in Bethlehem.* 

As there was another town of the same name in the tribe 

* "Bethlehem soon after came in sight,— a fine village, surrounded 
with gardens of fig-trees and olives. There is a deep valley below, and 
half-way down on the top of a hill is a green plain, the only one we 
have seen in Judea:— I could fancy Boaz's field forming part of it. The 
convent is a very remarkable building, and well worth seeing. Without, 
it is a perfect fortress, with heavy buttresses and small grated windows; 
on entering, we immediately came to a magnificent church, with a double 
row of ten Corinthian pillars of marble on each side,— forty pillars in 
all. On the arched roof are the remains of Mosaic, of the Empress 
Helena's time. One part was very distinct : it represented a city with 
temples, <fcc, and over it was written in Greek characters, Laodicea."— 
Anonymous Journal. 



168 DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY 



of Zebulon, the Bethlehem that we now approach was 
usually distinguished by the addition of Ephrata, or by a 
reference to the district in which it was situated. The 
convent which marks the place of the Redeemer's birth »vas 
built by Helena, after removing the idolatrous structure said 
to have been erected by Adrian, from a feeling of contempt 
or jealousy towards the Christians. At present it is di- 
vided among the monks of the Greek, Roman, and Arme- 
nian sects, who have assigned to them separate portions, as 
well for lodging as for places of worship ; though, on cer- 
tain days, they may all celebrate the rites of their common 
faith on altars which none of them have been hitherto al- 
lowed to appropriate. There are two churches, an upper 
and a lower, under the same roof. The former contains 
nothing remarkable, if we except a star inlaid in the floor, 
immediately under the spot in the heavens where the su- 
pernatural sign became visible to the wise men, and, like 
it, directly above the place of the Nativity in the church 
below. 

This last is an excavation in the rock, elegantly fitted up 
and floored with marble, and to which there is a descent 
by a flight of steps through a long narrow passage. Here 
are shown a great number of tombs, and among them one 
in which were said to be buried all the babes of Bethlehem 
murdered by the barbarous Herod. From hence the pilgrim 
is conducted into a handsome chapel, of which the floors 
and walls are composed of beautiful marble, having on each 
side five oratories, or recesses for prayer, corresponding to 
the ten stalls supposed to have been in the stable wherein 
our blessed Saviour was born. This sacred crypt is irregu- 
lar in shape, because it occupies the site of the stable and 
the manger. It is thirty-seven feet six inches long, eleven 
feet three inches broad, and nine feet in height. As it re- 
ceives no light from without, it is illumined by thirty-two 
lamps, sent by different princes of Christendom ; the other 
embellishments are ascribed to the munificent Helena. At 
the farther extremity of this small church there is an altar 
placed in an arcade, and hollowed out below in the form of 
an arch, to embrace the sacred spot where Emmanuel, hav- 
ing laid aside his glory, first appeared in the garb of human 
nature. A circle in the floor, composed of marble and jas- 



SOUTH AND EAST OF JERUSALEM. 169 




per, surrounded with silver, and having rays like those with 
which the sun is represented, marks the precise situation 
wherein that stupendous event was realized. An inscrip- 
tion, denoting that " here Jesus Christ was born of the Vir- 
gin Mary," meets the eye of the faithful worshipper. 



Hie de Virgine Maria Jesus Christus natus est. 

Adjoining the Altar of the Nativity is the Manger in 
which the Infant Messiah was laid. It is also formed of 
marble, and is raised about eighteen inches above the floor, 
bearing a resemblance to the humble bed which alone the 

P 



1?0 DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY 



furniture of a stable could supply. Before it is the Altar of 
the Wise Men, — a memorial of their adoration and praise 
at tlje moment when they saw the young child and Mary 
his mother. 

This edifice, says the Vicomte de Chateaubriand, is cer- 
tainly of high antiquity, and, often destroyed and as often 
repaired, it still retains marks of its Grecian origin. It is 
built in the form of a cross, the nave being adorned with 
forty-eight columns of the Corinthian order in four rows, 
which are at least two feet six inches in diameter at the base, 
and eighteen feet high, including the base and capital. As 
the roof of the nave is wanting, these pillars support no- 
thing but a frieze of wood, which occupies the place of the 
architrave and of the whole entablature. The windows are' 
large, and were formerly adorned with Mosaic paintings and 
passages from the Bible in Greek and Latin characters, the 
traces of which are still visible. 

The top of the church affords a fine prospect into the sur- 
rounding country, extending to Tekoa on the south and En- 
gedi on the east. In the latteT place is the grotto where' 
David, a native of Bethlehem, cut off the skirt of Saul's 
garment. There is also the convent of Eli as, in which is 
said to be a large stone still retaining an impression of his 
body. Between this point and Jerusalem Mr. Buckingham 
was struck with the appearance of several small detached - 
towers of a square form built in the midst of vine-lands* 
These, he learned, were for the accommodation of watch- 
men appointed to guard the produce from thieves and wild 
beasts ; hence explaining a passage which occurs in the 
Gospel according to St. Mark :— " A certain man planted a 
vineyard, and set an hedge about it, and digged a place for 
the wine-fat, and built a tower ■, and let it out to husband- 
men."* 

It is painful to find that the same animosity which attends 
the claims of the several sects of Christians at Jerusalem 
for the possession of the Holy Sepulchre disgraces their 
contentions at Bethlehem for the Grotto of the Nativity. A 
few years ago, during the celebration of the Christmas fes- 
tival, at which Mr. Bankes was present, a battle took place, 
in which some of the combatants were wounded, and others 



* Richardson, Buckingham, Maundrell, 



SOUTH AND EAST OF JERUSALEM. 171 



severely beaten ; and in the preceding season the privilege 
of saying mass at the altar on that particular day had been 
fought for at the door of the sanctuary itself with drawn 
swords. 

Dr. Clarke, whose skepticism in regard to the holy places 
in the capital has been already mentioned, grants that the 
tradition respecting the Cave of the Nativity is so well au- 
thenticated as hardly to admit of dispute. Having been 
always held in veneration,' the oratory established there by 
the first Christians attracted the notice and indignation of 
the heathens so early as the time of Adrian, who, as is else- 
where stated, ordered it to be demolished, and the place to 
be set apart for the rites of Adonis. This happened in the 
second century, and at a period in the emperor's life when 
the Grotto of the Nativity was as well known in Bethlehem 
as the circumstance to which it owed its celebrity. In the 
fourth age, accordingly, we find this fact appealed to by St. 
Jerome as an indisputable testimony by which the cave itself 
had been identified. Upon this subject there does not seem 
to be the slightest ground for skepticism ; and the evidence 
afforded by such a writer will be deemed sufficient for be- 
lieving that the monastery erected over the spot, and where 
he himself resided, does at this day point out the place of 
our Saviour's birth. # 

Nothing, observes a late traveller, can be more pleasing, 
or better calculated to excite sentiments of devotion, than 
this subterranean church. It is adorned with pictures of 
the Italian and Spanish schools, representing the mysteries 
peculiar to the place, — -the Virgin and Child, after Raphael ; 
the Annunciation ; the Adoration of the Wise Men ; the 
Coming of the Shepherds ; and all those miracles of min- 
gled grandeur and innocence. The usual ornaments of the 
manger are of blue satin, embroidered with silver. Incense 
is continually smoking before the cradle of the Saviour. " I 
have heard an organ, touched by no ordinary hand, playing 
during mass the sweetest and most tender tunes of the best 
Italian composers. These concerts charm the Christian 
Arab, who, leaving his camels to feed, repairs, like the shep^ 

* Bethleem nunc nostram, et augustissimum urbis locum de quo 
Psalmista canit (Ps. lxxxiv. 12). Veritas de terra orta est, lucus inurn- 
brabat Thamus, id est, Adonidis ; et in specu ubi quondam Christus par* 
vulus vagiit, Veneris Amasius plangebatur.— Epis. ad Paul, 



172 DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY 



herds of old, to Bethlehem, to adore the King of Kings in 
his manger. I have seen this inhabitant of the desert 
communicate at the altar of the Magi with a fervour, a piety, 
a devotion unknown among the Christians of the West." 
No place in the world, says Father Neret, excites more pro- 
found devotion. The continual arrival of caravans from all 
the nations of Christendom — the public prayers — the pros- 
trations — nay, even the richness of the presents sent thither 
by the Christian princes — altogether produce feelings in the 
soul which it is much easier to conceive than to describe.* 

It may be added, that, the effect of all this is heightened 
by an extraordinary contrast ; for, on quitting the grotto 
where you have met with the riches, the arts, the religion 
of civilized nations, you find yourself in a profound solitude, 
. amid wretched Arab huts, among half-naked savages and 
faithless Mussulmans. This place is nevertheless the same 
where' so many miracles were displayed ; but this sacred 
land dares no more express its joy, and locks within its 
bosom the recollections of its glory. 

Bethlehem has usually shared the vicissitudes of Jerusa- 
lem, being, both from its situation and the nature of the relics 
which it contains, exposed to the rage or cupidity of barba- 
rian conquerors. It fell under the power of the Saracens 
when led by their victorious calif ; but for seven centuries 
it has been guarded by a succession of religious persons 
who, it has been said, suffer a perpetual martyrdom. In 
the time of Volney, they reckoned about six hundred men 

* Pour ce qui est des ornemens de ce saint Temple, il n'en reste que 
fort peu en eomparaison de ce qui y estoit. Car tous les murs estoient 
autrefois magnifiquement reuestus et couuertes de belles tables de 
marbre gris onde, comme on en voit encore en quelques endroits que les 
Infidelles n'ont pu avoir. Comme ils ont emporte tout le reste pour en 
orner leurs Mosquees, et est une chose pitoyable de voir que tous les murs 
sont remplis de gros clous et crampons de fer qui les tenoient attachez. 
Au-dessus des colomnes de la nef est unmur tout convert, et peint de la 
plus belle et fine Mosaique qu'il est possible de voir, n'estant eomposee 
que de petites pierres fines et transparentes comme eristahde toutes les 
couleurs, qui represented grandes figures et histoires de la Vie, Miracles, 
Mort, et Passion de Nostre Seigneur, si naiiument faites des couleurs si 
vives et eclatantes, et le fonds d'un or si luysant, qu'il semble qu'elles 
sont faites depuis peu, encore qu'il y ait plus de treize cens ans. Entre 
ces figures sont treize fenestres de chacun coste, qui rendent un grand 
jour par toute l'eglise : derriere la troisieme et quatrieme colomne de la 
main droite^est un tres-beau et riche base de marbre blanc de forme 
ronde a six pans de quelques trois pieds de diametre, qui sert de fonds 
baptismaux. — Doubdan, p. 133. 



SOUTH AND EAST OF JERUSALEM. 173 



in this village capable of bearing arms, of whom about one 
hundred were Latin Christians. The necessity of uniting 
for their common defence against the Bedouins, and the still 
more relentless agents of despotism, has in many instances 
prevailed over points of faith, and induced the monks to live 
on good terms with the Mohammedans, Mr. Buckingham 
assures us, that at present the town is equal to Nazareth in 
extent, and contains from 1000 to 1500 inhabitants, who are 
almost wholly Christians. Dr. Richardson giyes the num- 
ber at 300, — an estimate, we should imagine, considerably 
below the actual population. The men are robust and well 
made, and the women are among the fairest and most hand- 
some that are to be seen in Palestine. 

The neighbourhood of Bethlehem presents a variety of 
objects too important to be passed over without a slight no- 
tice. The Pools of Solomon, connected, it is probable, with 
a scheme for supplying Jerusalem with water, are usually 
visited by the more enlightened class of travellers, who com- 
bine in their researches a regard to the arts as well as to 
the religion of Judea. These reservoirs are four in number, 
being so disposed, says Maundrell, that the water of the 
uppermost may descend into the second, and that of the 
second into the third. Their figure is quadrangular ; the 
breadth is the same in all, amounting to about ninety paces. 
In their length there is some difference ; the first being one 
hundred and sixty paces long, the second two hundred, and 
the third two hundred and twenty. They are all lined with 
masonry and plastered. The springs whence the pools are 
supplied seem to have been secured with great care, having, 
says the author of the Journey from Aleppo, " no avenue 
to them but by a little hole like to the mouth of a narrow 
well." Through this hole you descend directly about four 
yards, when you come to a chamber forty-five feet long 
and twenty-four broad, adjoining to which there is another 
apartment of the same kind, but not quite so large. Both 
these rooms are neatly arched, and have an air of great 
antiquity. The water, which rises from four separate 
sources, is partly conveyed by a subterranean passage into 
the ponds ; the remainder being received into an aqueduct 
of brick pipes, and carried by many turnings and windings 
among the mountains to the walls of Jerusalem. The monks 
pf Bethlehem are perfectly convinced that it was in allusion 



174 DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY 



to this guarded treasure, so valuable in Palestine, that Solo- 
mon called his beloved spouse a " sealed fountain." 

Of the aqueduct here mentioned some traces are still to be 
detected in the intermediate space, and denote an acquaint- 
ance with the principles of hydraulics which we could not 
have expected among Hebrew architects. It was con- 
structed all along upon the surface of the ground, and framed 
of perforated stones let into one another, with a fillet round 
the cavity, so contrived as to prevent leakage, and united 
together with so firm a cement that they will sometimes 
sooner break than endure a separation. These pipes were 
covered with an arch, or layer of flags, strengthened by the 
application of a peculiarly strong mortar ; the whole " being 
endued with such absolute firmness as if it had been de- 
signed for eternity. But the Turks have demonstrated in 
this instance, that nothing can be so well wrought but they 
are able to destroy it ; for of this strong aqueduct, which was 
carried formerly five or six leagues with so vast expense and 
labour, you see now only here and there a fragment re- 
maining/'* 

In a valley contiguous to Bethlehem are the remains of a 
church and convent which were erected by the pious em- 
press over the place where the angels appeared to the- shep- 
herds. Nothing has survived the desolation to which every 
edifice in Palestine has been repeatedly subjected but a 
small grotto wherein the heavenly communication was 
vouchsafed to the simple keepers of the flock. 

On the way back to Jerusalem the traveller is induced to 
leave the more direct route, that he may visit the Convent 
of St. John in the Desert. This monastery is built over the 
dwelling where the Baptist is supposed to have first seen 
the light ; and accordingly, under the altar, the spot on 
which he was brought forth is marked by a star of marble 
bearing this inscription : — 

" Hie precursor Domini Christi natus est." 
Here the forerunner of the Lord Christ was born. 

The church belonging to- this establishment has been de- 
scribed as one of the best in the Holy Land, having an ele- 
gant cupola and a pavement of Mosaic, with some paintings. 

* Maundrell, p. 90. 



SOUTH AND EAST OF JERUSALEM. 175 



But the appearance, nevertheless, is poor and deserted, as 
if its votaries were few, and but little concerned in preserv- 
ing its ancient grandeur. The account given of it by Sandys 
will amuse the reader T)y the simplicity of the narrative as 
well as by the deep interest the good man felt in the various 
scenes which passed before him : — " Having travelled about 
a mile and a halfe farther, we came to the cave where the 
Baptist is said to have lived from the age of seven until 
such time as he went into the wilderness by Jordan, se- 
questred from the abode of men, and feeding on such wilde 
nourishment as these uninhabited places affoorded. This 
cave is seated on the northern side of a desart mountaine, — 
only beholden to the locust-tree, — hewne out of the precipi- 
tating rock, so as difficultly to be ascended or descended to, 
entered at the east corner, and receiving light from a win- 
dow in the side. At the upper end there is a bench of the 
selfesame, whereon, they say, he accustomed to sleepe ; of 
which whoso breaks a piece off stands forthwith excommu- 
nicate. Over this, on a little flat, stand the ruins of a mon- 
astery, on the south side, naturally walled with the steepe 
of a mountain ; from whence there gusheth a living spring 
which entereth the rock, and again bursteth forth beneathe 
the mouth of the cave, — a place that would make solitari- 
nesse delightful, and stand in comparison with the turbu- 
lent pompe of cities. This overlooketh a profound valley, 
on the far side hemmed with aspiring mountains, whereof 
some are cut (or naturally so) in degrees like allies, which 
would be else unaccessibly fruitlesse ; whose levels yet bear 
the stumps of decayed vines, shadowed not rarely with 
olives and locusts. And surely I think that all or most of 
those mountains have bin so husbanded, else could this little 
countrey have never sustained such a multitude of people. 
After we had fed of such provision as was brought us from 
the city by other of the fraternitie that there met us, we 
turned towards Jerusalem, leaving the way of Bethlehem on 
the right-hand, and that of Emmaus on the left. The first 
place of note that we met with was there where once stood 
the dwelling of Zachary, seated on the side of a fruitful hill, 
well stored with olives and vineyards. Hither came the 
blessed Virgin to visit her cousin Elisabeth. Here died Elisa- 
beth, and here, in a grot, on the side of a vault or chapell, lies 
buried ; over which a goodly church was erected, together 



|76 DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY 



with a monastery, whereof now little standeth but a part of 
the walls, which offer to the view some fragments of paint-? 
ing, which show that the rest have been exquisit, Beyond 
and lower is Our Lady's Fountaine (so called of the inhabit- 
ants), which maintaineth a little current thorow the neigh- 
bouring valley. Neer this, in the bottome and uttermost 
extent thereof, there standeth a temple, once sumptuous, 
now desolate, built by Helena, and dedicated to St. John 
Baptist, in the place where Zachary had another house, 
possest, as the rest, by the beastly Arabians, who defile it 
with their cattell, and employ to the basest of uses."* 

It is a point still unsettled, whether the food of him who 
was sent to prepare the way consisted of fruit or of insects ; 
the name locust being indiscriminately applied to either, and 
both being used by the inhabitants of Palestine. There is 
less doubt in regard to the opinions of the early Christians, 
who were unanimous in the belief that the Baptist lived on 
the produce of a particular tree which still abounds in the 
desert. Nay, the friars at the present day assert, that the 
very plants which yielded sustenance to the holy recluse 
continue to flourish in their ancient vigour ; and the popish 
pilgrims, says Mr. Maundrell, who dare not be wiser than 
such blind guides, gather the fruit of them, and carry it 
away with much devotion. 

But we must not permit the interesting associations of 
Bethlehem to detain us any longer in its vicinity. We pro? 
ceed now towards the extremity of the Dead Sea ; whence, 
after having visited the most remarkable scenes on its 
western shore, — the mouth of the Jordan and the position 
of Jericho, — we shall return to the capital by a different 
route. 

After having satisfied his curiosity in church and convent, 
the traveller turns his face southward to Tekoa and Hebron, 
those remoter villages of the Holy Land. The former, 
which was built by Rehoboam, and is distinguished as the 
birthplace of Amos the prophet, presents considerable ruins, 
and even some remains of architecture. It appears to have 
Stood upon a hill, which Pococke describes as being about 
half a mile in length and a furlong broad. On the north? 
pastern corner there are fragments of an old building, sup? 



* Relation of a Journey, p. 183* 



SOUTH AND EAST OF JERUSALEM. 177 



posed to have been a fortress, while about half-way up the 
ascent there are similar indications of a church now in a 
state of complete dilapidation. There is preserved, how- 
ever, a large font of an octagon form, composed of red and 
white marble ; as also pieces of broken pillars consisting 
of the same material. 

Farther towards the south, various manifestations present 
themselves of ancient civilization, the traces of which are 
most distinctly marked by places of worship and numerous 
strongholds. The traveller just named mentions a ruined 
castle called Creightoun, situated on the side of a steep hill, 
and a church dedicated to St. Pantaleone. At a little dis- 
tance there is an immense grotto, which is said on one oc- 
casion to have contained 30,000 men ; and hence it is con- 
jectured to be one of those retreats in the fastnesses of En- 
gedi to which David fled from the pursuit of Saul. About 
two miles farther, in a south-eastern direction, is the Mount 
of Bethulia, near a village of the same name ; a position 
which is thought to agree with that of Beth-haccerem, speci- 
fied by Jeremiah as a proper place for a beacon, where the 
children of Benjamin were to sound the trumpet in Tekoa.* 

There is a tradition that the knights of Jerusalem, during 
the Holy War, held this strong post forty years after the 
capital had fallen. It is a single hill, and very high ; and 
the top of it appears like a large mount formed by art, being 
defended by a double line of fortifications and several towers, 
which in a rude state of warfare might be pronounced 
almost impregnable. At the foot of an eminence towards 
the north there are the remains of a magnificent church as 
well as of other buildings. On a slope a little farther west 
there is a cistern connected with a pond, which appears to 
have had an island in it, and probably some structure suited 
to the supply of water. These works were also encom- 
passed with a double wall ; and it is said that two aqueducts 
may still be perceived terminating in the basin, one from 
the Sealed Fountain of Solomon, and another from the hilly 
district which stretches between Bethlehem and Tekoa. 

In reference to the tradition that the knights of Jerusalem 

* O ye children of Benjamin, gather yourselves to flee out of the midst 
of Jerusalem, and blow the trumpet in Tekoa, and set up a sign of fire in 
Beth-haccerem : for evil appeareth out of the north, and great destruc- 
tion.— Jer. vi. 1. 



178 DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY 



held the garrison of Bethulia forty years, Captain Mangles 
remarks, that the place is too small to have contained even 
half the number of men which would have been requisite to 
make any stand in such a ccuntry ; and the ruins, though 
they may be those of a place once defended by Franks, ap- 
pear to have had an earlier origin, as the architecture seems 
to be decidedly Roman. There can be little doubt, indeed, 
that it is one of the works of Herod the Great ; and its dis- 
tance does not differ much from that of Herodium, which is 
described by Josephus as being about sixty furlongs from the 
metropolis. The delineation of the hill, too, by the same 
historian, corresponds with the Mount of the Franks ; and 
when he adds that water was conveyed to it at a great ex- 
pense, we cannot permit ourselves to question the identity 
of Herodium and the fortress of Bethulia.* 

Hebron, Habroun, or, according to the Arabic orthography 
followed by the moderns, El Hhalil, is considerably removed 
from the usual track of pilgrims and tourists. An accident 
or quarrel once excited the indignation of the inhabitants 
against the Franks, who during a long course of time were 
dissuaded by the monks at Jerusalem from extending their 
researches beyond Bethlehem. Sandys could only report, 
apparently on the information of others, that Hebron was 
reduced to ruins ; but he adds, there is a little village seated 
in the field of Machpelah, " where standeth a goodly temple, 
erected over the burying-cave of the patriarchs by Helena, 
the mother of Constantine, converted now into a mosque." 
Without minutely analyzing the topography of this rather 
credulous author, we may repeat the assurance which he 
gives relative to the existence of the imperial monument 
dedicated to the memory of Abraham and his immediate de- 
scendants. M. Burckhardt, who saw it in 1807, bears tes- 
timony to the fact that the sepulchre, once a Greek church, 
is now appropriated to the worship of Mohammed. The 
ascent to it is by a large and fine staircase that leads to a 
long gallery, the entrance to which is by a small court. 
Towards the left is a portico resting upon square pillars. 
The vestibule of the temple contains two rooms ; the one 
being the tomb of Abraham, the other that of Sarah. In 
fhe body of the church, between two large pillars on the 



■* Modern Traveller, voJ* i p. 183. Joseph. A.ntiq. lib. xiv. c, 13. 



SOUTH AND EAST OF JERUSALEM. 

right, is seen a small recess, in which is the sepulchre of 
Isaac, and in a similar one upon the left is that of his wife. 
On the opposite side of the court is another vestibule, which 
has also two rooms, being respectively the tomb of Jacob 
and of his spouse. At the extremity of the portico, upori 
the right-hand, is a door which leads to a sort of long gafc 
lery that still serves for a mosque ; and passing from thence 
is observed another room containing the ashes of Joseph, 
which are said to have been carried thither by the people of 
Israel. All the sepulchres of the patriarchs are covered 
with rich carpets of green silk, magnificently embroidered 
with gold ; those of their wives are red, embroidered in like 
manner. The sultans of Constantinople furnish these car- 
pets, which are' renewed from time to time. M. Burck- 
hardt counted nine, one over another, upon the sepulchre 
of Abraham. The rooms also which contain the tombs are" 
covered with rich carpets ; the entrance to them is guarded 
by iron gates, and wooden doors plated with silver, having 
bolts and padlocks of the same metal. More than a hun- 
dred persons are employed in the service of this temple , 
affording, with the decorations and wealth lavished upon 
the structure, a remarkable contrast to the simple life of the 
venerable man to whose memory it is meant to do honour. 

If the description given by Sandys in the sevente'eiitfi 
century was correct, we must conclude that Hebron has 
subsequently enjoyed a period of improvement. According 
to the traveller whom we have just quoted, it contains about 
four hundred families, of which about a fourth part are 
Jews. It is situated on the slope of a mountain ; has a 
strong castle ; can boast abundance of provisions, a con- 
siderable number of shops, and some neat houses. The 
whole of the country between Tekoa and Hebron is finer 
and better cultivated than in the neighbourhood f Jerusa- 
lem ; while the sides of the hills, instead of being naked 
and dreary, are richly studded with the oak, the arbutus, the 
Scottish fir, and a variety of flowering-shrubs. 

Beyond this point the information of Europeans ceased 
until about twelve years ago, when the desert which 
stretches between the Sepulchre of Abraham and the Dead 
Sea was entered by Mr. Bankes, Mr. Legh, and Captains Irby 
and Mangles. After a journey of three days from Hebron 
towards the south, the travellers were informed of extensive 
rums at Abdi in the Wilderness. On turning their faces to 



280 DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY 



Kerek, the object of their search, the road led in the direct 
tion of the Lake Asphaltites, through a country which, 
although well cultivated, was extremely uninteresting. 
They observed a variety of ruins, with some subterranean 
tombs in the neighbourhood, denoting the existence of an 
ancient town ; when, after having advanced eight or nine 
miles farther y they found themselves on the borders of an 
extensive desert, entirely abandoned to the wandering Be- 
douins. Near the point at which this change of aspect 
begins is a place called by the natives Al-baid, where there 
is a fountain in the rock and a pool of greenish water. 

The travellers, at some distance from this halting-place* 
arrived at a camp of Jellaheen Arabs, who told them that in 
years of scarcity they were accustomed to retire into Egypt, 
—a practice which seems to have been handed down from 
the days of the patriarchs, or dictated by the same necessity 
that compelled the family of Jacob to adopt a- similar expe- 
dient. At the distance of eight hours from Al-baid, in a 
deep barren valley, are the ruins of an old Turkish fort, 
standing on a solitary rock to the left of the track. Farther 
on the cliff is excavated, at a considerable height, into loop- 
holes ; where it is probable a barrier was formerly estab- 
lished for levying a certain duty on goods and travellers- 
The place is called El Zowar, or El Ghor. From hence a 
gravelly ravine, studded with bushes of acacia and other 
shrubs, conducts to the great plain at the southern extremity 
of the Dead Sea ; bounded at the distance of eight or nine 
miles by a sandy cliff at least seventy feet high, which forms 
a barrier to the lake when at its greatest elevation. The 
existence of that long valley which extends from Asphal- 
tites to the JSlanitic Gulf was first ascertained by Burck- 
hardt ; and the prolongation of it, as. connected with the 
hollow of the Jordan, has been considered as a proof that 
the river at one time discharged its waters into the eastern 
branch of the Red Sea. The change is attributed to that 
great volcanic convulsion mentioned in the nineteenth chap- 
ter of Genesis, which, interrupting the course of the river, 
converted into a lake the fertile plain occupied by the cities 
of Adma, Zeboim, Sodom, and Gomorrah, and reduced all 
the valley southward to the condition of a sandy waste.* 

* Burckhardt's Travels in Syria, Pref. vi. Modern Traveller, vol, i. 
p. 203. Doubdan, Voyage, p. 322, 326. 



SOUTH AND EAST OF JERUSALEM. 181 



But, having reached the shore of the Dead Sea by an 
unfrequented path, we have no guide to the examination 
of the wild country which rises on either side of it ; we 
therefore prefer the more wonted route which leads to its 
northern border, near the mouth of the Jordan and the site 
of the ancient Jericho. Avoiding, at the same time, the 
track of the caravan from Jerusalem through the hilly desert 
which intervenes, we shall accompany the Yicomte de 
Chateaubriand from Bethlehem through the interesting 
Valley of Santa Saba. 

On leaving the Church of the Nativity the traveller pur- 
sues his course eastward, through a vale where Abraham 
is said to have fed his flocks. This pastoral tract, how- 
ever, is soon succeeded by a range of hilly ground, so ex- 
tremely barren that not even a root of moss is to be seen 
upon it. Descending the farther side of this meager plat- 
form two lofty towers are perceived, rising from a deep 
valley, marking the site of the Convent of Santa Saba. 
Nothing can be more dreary than the situation of this reli- 
gious house. It is erected in a ravine, sunk to the depth 
of several hundred feet, where the brook Kedron has formed 
a channel, which is dry the greater part of the year. The 
church is on a little eminence at the bottom of the dell ; 
whence the buildings of the monastery rise by perpendicu- 
lar flights of steps and passages hewn out of the rock, and 
thus ascend to the ridge of the hill, where they terminate 
in the two square towers already mentioned. From hence 
you descry the sterile summits of the mountains both to- 
wards the east and west ; the course of the stream from 
Jerusalem ; and the numerous grottoes formerly occupied 
by Christian anchorites. 

In advancing, the aspect of the country still continues 
the same, white and dusty, without tree, herbage, or even 
moss. At length the road seeks a lower level, and ap- 
proaches the rocky border which bounds the Valley of the 
Jordan ; when, after a toilsome journey of ten or twelve 
hours, the traveller sees stretching out before his eyes the 
Dead Sea and the line of the river. But the landscape, 
however grand, admits of no comparison to the scenery 
of Europe. No fields waving with corn, — no plains cov- 
ered with rich pasture present themselves from the moun- 
tains of Lower Palestine. Figure to yourself two long 

Q 



182 DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY 



chains of mountains, running in a parallel direction from 
north to south, without breaks and without undulations. 
The eastern or Arabian chain is the highest ; and, when 
seen at the distance of eight or ten leagues, you would 
take it to be a prodigious perpendicular wall, resembling 
Mount Jura in its form and azure colour. Not one sum- 
mit, not the smallest peak can be distinguished ; you 
merely perceive slight inflections here and there, " as if the 
hand of the painter who drew this horizontal line along 
the sky had trembled in some places." 

The mountains of Judea form the range on which the 
observer stands as he looks down on the Lake Asphaltites. 
Less lofty and more unequal than the eastern chain, it 
differs from the other in its nature also ; exhibiting heaps 
of chalk and sand, whose form, it is said, bears some re- 
semblance to piles of arms, waving standards, or the tents 
of a camp pitched on the border of a plain. The Arabian 
side, on the contrary, presents nothing but black precipi- 
tous rocks, which throw their lengthened shadow over the 
waters of the Dead Sea. The smallest bird of heaven 
would not find among these crags a single blade of grass 
for its sustenance ; every thing announces the country of a 
reprobate people, and well fitted to perpetuate the punish- 
ment denounced against Ammon and Moab. 

The valley confined by these two chains of mountains 
displays a soil resembling the bottom of a sea which has 
long retired from its bed, a beach covered with salt, dry 
mud, and moving sands, furrowed, as it were, by the waves. 
Here and there stunted shrubs vegetate with difficulty upon 
this inanimate tract ; their leaves are covered with salt, and 
their bark has a smoky smell and taste. Instead of vil- 
lages you perceive the ruins of a few towers. In the middle 
of this valley flows a discoloured river, which reluctantly 
throws itself into the pestilential lake by which it is in- 
gulfed. Its course amid the sands can be distinguished 
only by the willows and the reeds that border it ; among 
which the Arab lies in ambush to attack the traveller and 
to murder the pilgrim.* 

M. Chateaubriand remarks, that when you travel in 
Judea the heart is at first filled with profound melancholy. 



* Chateaubriand, torn. i. p. 408. 



SOUTH AND EAST OF JERUSALEM. 183 



But when, passing from solitude to solitude, boundless 
space opens before you, this feeling wears off by degrees, 
and you experience a secret awe, which, so far from de- 
pressing the soul, imparts life and elevates the genius. 
Extraordinary appearances everywhere proclaim a land 
teeming with miracles. The burning sun, the towering 
eagle, the barren fig-tree, all the poetry, all the pictures of 
Scripture are here. Every name commemorates a mys- 
tery, — every grotto announces a prediction, — every hill re- 
echoes the accents of a prophet. God himself has spoken 
in these regions, dried up rivers, rent the rocks, and opened 
the grave. " The desert still appears mute with terror ; 
and you would imagine that it had never presumed to in- 
terrupt the silence since it heard the awful voice of the 
Eternal. 

The celebrated lake which occupies the site of Sodom 
and Gomorrah is called in Scripture the Dead Sea. Among 
the Greeks and Latins it is known by the name of Asphal- 
tites ; the Arabs denominate it Bahar Loth, or Sea of 
Lot. M. de Chateaubriand does not agree with those who 
conclude it to be the crater of a volcano ; for, having seen 
Vesuvius, Solfatara, the Peak of the Azores, and the ex- 
tinguished volcanoes of Auvergne, he remarked in all of 
them the same characters ; that is to say, mountains exca- 
vated in the form of a tunnel, lava, and ashes, which ex- 
hibited incontestable proof of the agency of fire. The Salt 
Sea, on the contrary, is a lake of great length, curved like 
a bow, placed between two ranges of mountains, which 
have no mutual coherence of form, no similarity of compo- 
sition. They do not meet at the two extremities of the 
lake ; but while the one continues to bound the valley of 
Jordan, and to run northward as far as Tiberias, the other 
stretches away to the south till it loses itself in the sands 
of Yemen. There are, it is true, hot springs, quantities of 
bitumen, sulphur, and asphaltos ; but these of themselves 
are not sufficient to attest the previous existence of a vol- 
cano. With respect, indeed, to the ingulfed cities, if we 
adopt the idea of Michaelis and of Busching, physics may 
be admitted to explain the catastrophe without offence to 
religion. According to their views, Sodom was built upon 
a mine of bitumen, — a fact which is ascertained by the tes- 
timony of Moses and Josephus, who speak of wells of 



184 DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY 



naphtha in the Valley of Siddim. Lightning kindled the 
combustible mass, and the guilty cities sank in the subter- 
raneous conflagration. Malte Brun ingeniously suggests 
that Sodom and Gomorrah themselves may nave been built 
of bituminous stones, and thus have been set in flames by 
the fire from heaven. 

According to Strabo, there were thirteen towns swal- 
lowed up in the Lake Asphaltites ; Stephen of Byzantium 
reckons eight ; the book of Genesis, while it names five as 
situated in the Vale of Siddim, relates the destruction of 
two only : four are mentioned in Deuteronomy, and five are 
noticed by the author of Ecclesiasticus. Several travellers, 
and among others Troilo and D'Arvieux, assure us, that they 
observed fragments of walls and palaces in the Dead Sea. 
Maundrell himself was not so fortunate, owing, he supposes, 
to the height of the water ; but he relates that the Father 
Guardian and Procurator of Jerusalem, both men of sense 
and probity, declared that they had once actually seen one 
of these ruins ; that it was so near the shore, and the lake 
so shallow, that they, together with some Frenchmen, went 
to it, and found there several pillars and other fragments 
of buildings. The ancients speak more positively on this 
subject. Josephus, who employs a poetical expression, 
says, that he perceived on the snores of the Dead Sea the 
shades of the overwhelmed cities. Strabo gives a circum- 
ference of sixty stadia to the ruins of Sodom, which are 
also mentioned by Tacitus.* 

It is surprising that no pains have been taken by recent 
travellers to throw light upon this interesting point, or even 
to learn whether the periodical rise and fall of the lake af- 
fords any means for determining the accuracy of the ancient 
historians and geographers. Should the Turks ever give 
permission, and should it be found practicable, to convey a 
vessel from Jaffa to this inland sea, some curious discoveries 
would certainly be made. Is it not amazing that, notwith- 
standing the enterprise of modern science, the ancients 
were better acquainted with the properties, and even the 
dimensions of the Lake Asphaltites, than the most learned 

* " Hand procul inde campi, quos ferunt olim uberes, magnisque ur 
bibus habitatos, fulminum jactu, arsisse ; ct manere vestigia, terramque 
jpsam, specie torridam, vim frugiferam perdidisse." — Tacit. Hist. lib. y. 
cap. 7. 



SOUTH AND EAST OF JERUSALEM. 185 



nations of Europe in our own times ? It is described by 
Aristotle, Strabo, Diodorus Siculus, Pliny, Tacitus, Soli- 
nus, Josephus, Galen, and Dioscorides. The Abbot of 
Santa Saba is the only person for many centuries who has 
made the tour of the Dead Sea. From his account we 
learn, through the medium of Father Nau, that at its ex- 
tremity it is separated, as it were, into two parts, and that 
there is a way by which you may walk across it, being only 
mid-leg deep, at least in summer ; that there the land rises, 
and bounds another small lake of a circular or rather an 
oval figure, surrounded with plains and hills of salt ; and 
that the neighbouring country is peopled by innumerable 
Arabs.* 

It is known that seven considerable streams fall into this 
basin, and hence it was long supposed that it must discharge 
its superfluous stores by subterranean channels into the 
Mediterranean or the Red Sea. This opinion is now every- 
where relinquished, in consequence of the learned remarks 
on the effect of evaporation in a hot climate, published by 
Dr. Halley many years ago ; the justness of which were 
admitted by Dr. Shaw, though he calculated that the Jordan 
alone threw into the lake every day more than six million 
tuns of water. It is deserving of notice, that the Arabian 
philosophers, if we may believe Mariti, had anticipated 

* The Abbe Mariti, who saw little himself, is not willing to allow to 
others the advantage of having been more fortunate. " Quelques voy- 
ageurs ont avance qu'on distinguoit encore les debris de ces villes in- 
fortunees, lorsque les eaux de la mer etoient basses et lympides. II en 
est meme que'disent avoir appercu des restes de colonnes avec leurs 
chapitaux. Mais, il faut que l'imagination les ait trompes, ou que de- 
puis leur retour, cette mer ait eprouv£ de nouvelles secousses, car je n'y 
peux rien voir de semblable, malgre toute ma bonne volonte. Un pere 
capucin crut aussi reconnoitre sur ces bords, les effets frappans de la 
malediction celeste. Ici, ce sont des traces de feu, la, une surface de 
cendres, partout des champs arides et maudits. II croit meme respirer 
encore une odeur de soufre. Pour moi je suis affecte en sens contraire : 
rien dans ce lieu ne me rappelle la desolation dont parle la bible. L'air 
y est pure, le gazon d'un beau vert ; en plus d'un endroit mon oeil se 
refraichit aux eaux argentines qui jaillissant en gerbes du sommet des 
monts ; la sterilite dont une partie de ces campagnes fut frappee des la 
naissance du monde, rend plus douce par le contrasts l'apparence de 
fertilite que je remarquai dans le sol d'Alvona. Mais d'ou vient done 
que deux voyageurs peuvent etre si opposes? C'est que un capucin 
porte partout les cinq sens de la foi, et que moi je ne suis doue que de 
ceux de la nature."— Tom. ii. p. 334. 

Q 2 



186 DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY 



Halley in his conclusions in regard to the absorbent power 
of a dry atmosphere.* 

The marvellous properties usually assigned to the Dead 
Sea by the earlier travellers have vanished upon a more 
rigid investigation. It is now known that bodies sink or 
float upon it, in proportion to their specific gravity ; and 
that, although the water is so dense as to be favourable to 
swimmers, no security is found against the common accident 
of drowning. Josephus indeed asserts that Vespasian, in 
order to ascertain the fact now mentioned, commanded a 
number of his slaves to be bound hand and foot and thrown 
into the deepest part of the lake ; and that, so far from any 
of them sinking, they all maintained their place on the sur- 
face until it pleased the emperor to have them taken out. 
But this anecdote, although perfectly consistent with truth, 
does not justify all the inferences which have been drawn 
from it. " Being willing to make an experiment," says 
Maundrell, " I went into it, and found that it bore up my 
body in swimming with an uncommon force ; but as for that 
relation of some authors, that men wading into it were 
buoyed up to the top as soon as they got as deep as the 
middle, I found it, upon trial, not true."f 

The water of this sea has been frequently analyzed both 
in France and England. The specific gravity of it, accord- 
ing to Malte Brun, is 1.21 1, that of fresh water being 1.000. 
It is perfectly transparent. The application of tests, or 
reagents, prove that it contains the muriatic and sulphuric 
acids. There is no alumina in it, nor does it appear that it 
is saturated with marine salt or muriate of soda. It holds 
in solution the following substances, and in the proportions 
here stated : 

Muriate of lime, 3.920 

Magnesia, 10.246 

Soda, 10.360 

Sulphate of lime, 054 

We need not add that such a liquid must be equally salt 
and bitter. As might be expected, too, it is found to de- 

* " On plutdt doit on admettre l'opinion des physiciens Arabes, qui 
etablissent, non sans quelque fondement, qu'elles se dissipent en evapo- 
ration Tom. ii. p. 334. 

t Mr. Gordon, however, maintains, that persons who have never learned 
to swim will float on its surface. Chateaubriand, torn. i. p. 412. 



SOUTH AND EAST OF JERUSALEM. 187 



posite its salts in copious incrustations, and to prove a ready- 
agent in all processes of petrifaction. Clothes, boots, and 
hats, if dipped in the lake, or accidentally wetted with its 
water, are found, when dried, to be covered with a thick 
coating of these minerals. Hence, we cannot be surprised 
to hear that the Lake Asphaltites does not present any 
variety of fish. Mariti asserts that it produces none, and 
even that those which are carried into it by the rapidity of 
the Jordan perish almost immediately upon being immerged 
in its acrid waves. A few shell-snails constitute the sole 
tenants of its dreary shores, unmixed either with the helix 
or the muscle. 

It was formerly believed that the approach to Asphaltites 
was fatal to birds, and that, like another lake of antiquity, 
it had the power of drawing them down from the wing into 
its poisonous waters. This dream, propagated by certain 
visionary travellers, is now completely discredited. Flocks 
of swallows may be seen skimming along its surface with 
the utmost impunity, while the absence of all other species 
is easily explained by a glance at the naked hills and barren 
plains, which supply no vegetable food. 

The historian Josephus, who measured the Dead Sea, 
found that in length it extended about five hundred and 
eighty stadia, and in breadth one hundred and fifty, — ac- 
cording to our standard, somewhat more than seventy miles 
by nineteen. A recent traveller, to whose unpublished 
journal we have repeatedly alluded, remarks that the lake, 
when he visited it, was sunk or hollow, and that the banks 
had been recently under water, being still very miry and 
difficult to pass. The shores were covered with dry wood, 
some of it good timber, which they say is brought by the 
Jordan from the country of the Druses. " The water is 
pungently salt, like oxymuriate "of soda. It is incredibly 

buoyant. G bathed in it, and when he lay still on his 

back or belly, he floated with one-fourth at least of his whole 
body above the water. He described the sensation as ex- 
traordinary, and more like lying on a feather-bed than float- 
ing on water. On the other hand, he found the greatest 
resistance in attempting to move through it : it smarted his 
eyes excessively. I put a piece of stick in ; it required a 
good deal of pressure to make it sink, and when let go it 
bounded out again like a blown bladder. The water was 



188 DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY 

clear, and of a yellowish tinge, which might be from the 
colour of the stones at bottom, or from the hazy atmosphere. 
There were green shrubs down to the water's edge in one 
place, and nothing to give an idea of any thing blasting in 
the neighbourhood of the sea ; the desert character of the 
soil extending far beyond the possibility of being affected 
by its influence."* 

The bitumen supplied by this singular basin affords the 
means of a comfortable livelihood to a considerable number 
of Arabs who frequent its shores. The Pasha of Damas- 
cus, who finds it a valuable article of commerce, purchases 
at a small price the fruit of their labours, or supplies them 
with food, clothing, and a few ornaments in return for it. 
In ancient times it found a ready market in Egypt, where 
it was used in large quantities for embalming the dead : it 
was also occasionally employed as a substitute for stone, and 
appeared in the walls of houses and even of temples. 

Associated with the Dead Sea, every reader has heard of 
the apples of Sodom, a species of fruit which, extremely 
beautiful to the eye, is bitter to the taste, and full of dust. 
Tacitus, in the fifth book of his history, alludes to this sin- 
gular fact, but, as usual, in language so brief and ambigu- 
ous, that no light can be derived from his description, atra et 
inania velut in cinerem vanescunt. Some travellers, unable 
to discover this singular production, have considered it 
merely as a figure of speech, depicting the deceitful nature 
of all vicious enjoyments. Hasselquist regards it as the 
production of a small plant called Solanum melongena, a 
species of nightshade, which is to be found abundantly in 
the neighbourhood of Jericho. He admits that the apples 
are sometimes full of dust ; but this, he maintains, appears 
only when the fruit is attacked by a certain insect, which 
converts the whole of the inside into a kind of powder, 
leaving the rind wholly entire, and in possession of its 
beautiful colour. 

* " Le Cardinal de Vitry la nomme la Mer du Diable, et Marinus Sa- 
nutus dit qu'elle est tousjours couuerte d'une fumee epaisse et de vapeurs 
noires, comme quelque soupirail ou cheminee d'Enfer. D'autres disent 
que son eau est noire, gluante, epaisse, grasse, fanguese, et de tres- 
mauvaise odeur ; et toutefois j'ay parle a des Religieux qui m'ont asseure 
y avoir ete, et que cette eau est claire, nette, et liquide : mais tr^s-amere 
et salee. Et comme j'ay dit, je n'y ay veu, ny fumee ny brouillards." — 
Doubdan, Voyage de la Terre Sainte, p. 317. 



SOUTH AND EAST OF JERUSALEM. 189 



M. Seetzen, again, holds the novel opinion, that this mys- 
terious apple contains a sort of cotton resemhling silk ; and, 
having no pulp or flesh in the inside, might naturally enough, 
when sought for as food, be denounced by the hungry Be- 
douin as pleasing to the eye and deceitful to the palate. 
Chateaubriand has fixed on a shrub different from any of 
the others. It grows two or three leagues from the mouth 
of the Jordan, and is of a thorny appearance, with small 
tapering leaves. Its fruit is exactly like that of the Egyp- 
tian lemon, both in size and colour. Before it is ripe it is 
filled with a corrosive and saline juice ; when dried, it 
yields a blackish seed that may be compared to ashes, and 
which in taste resembles bitter pepper. There can be little 
doubt that this is the true apple of Sodom, which flatters 
the sight while it mocks the appetite.* 
' In ascending the western shore, the traveller at length 
reaches the point where the Jordan mixes its muddy waters 
with those of the lake. Hasselquist, the only modern author 
who describes the mouth of that celebrated river, tells us 
that the plain which extends from thence to Jericho, a dis- 
tance of more than three leagues, is, generally speaking, 
level, but uncultivated and barren. The soil is a grayish 
sandy clay, so loose that the horses often sank up to the 
knees in it. The whole surface of the earth is covered with 
salt in the same manner as on the banks of the Nile, and 
would, it is probable, prove no less fruitful were it irrigated 
with equal care. The stones on the beach, it is added, 
were all quartz, but of various colours ; some specimens of 
which, having a slaty structure, emitted, when exposed to 
fire, a strong smell of bitumen, thereby denoting, perhaps, 
its volcanic origin. 

There is a great want of unanimity among authors in 
respect to the width of the Jordan, The Swede whom we 
have just quoted relates, that opposite to Jericho it was 
eight paces over, the banks perpendicular, six feet in height, 

* u As for the apples of Sodom, so much talked of, I neither saw nor 
heard of any hereabouts ; nor was there any tree to be seen near the lake 
from which one might expect such a fruit. Which induces me to believe 
that there may be a greater deceit in this fruit than that which is usually 
reported of it ; and that its very being, as well as its beauty, is a fiction, 
only kept up, as my Lord Bacon observes other false notions are, because 
it serves for a good allusion, and helps the poet to a similitude. — Maun' 
drell, p. 85. 



190 DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY 



the water deep, muddy, warm rather than cold, and much 
inferior in quality to that of the Nile. Chateaubriand, 
again, who measured it in several places, reports that it 
was about fifty feet in breadth, and six feet deep close to 
the shore, — a discrepancy which must arise from the period 
of the year when it was seen by these distinguished 
writers.* 

The Old Testament abounds with allusions to the swell- 
ings of Jordan ; but at present, whether the current has 
deepened its channel, or whether the climate is less moist 
than in former days, this occurrence is seldom witnessed, — 
the river has forgotten its ancient greatness. Maundrell 
could discern no sign or probability of such overflowings ; 
for although he was there on the 30th of March, — the 
proper season of the inundation, — the river was running 
two yards at least under the level of its banks. The mar- 
gin of the stream, however, continues as of old to be closely 
covered with a natural forest of tamarisk, willows, oleanders, 
and similar trees, and to afford a retreat to several species 
of wild beasts. Hence the fine metaphor of the prophet 
Jeremiah, who assimilates an enraged enemy to a lion 
coming up " from the swellings of Jordan," driven from his 
lair by the annual flood, and compelled to seek shelter in 
the surrounding desert. 

Jericho, which is at present a miserable village inhabited 
by half-naked Arabs, derives all its importance from history. 
It was the first city which the Israelites reduced upon en- 
tering the Holy Land. Five hundred and thirty years 
afterward it was rebuilt by Heliel of Bethel, who succeeded 
in restoring its population, its splendour, and its commerce ; 
in which flourishing condition it appears to have continued 
during several centuries. Mark Antony, in the pride of 
power, presented to Cleopatra the whole territory of Jericho. 
Vespasian, in the course of the sanguinary war which he 
prosecuted in Judea, sacked its walls, and put its inhabit- 
ants to the sword. Re-established by Adrian in the 138th 
year of our faith, it was doomed at no distant era to expe- 
rience new disasters. It was again repaired by the Chris- 

* The reading in Hasselquist must be eighteen instead of eight, or 
eight fathoms, instead of feet, for Mr. Maundrell remarks that the breadth 
of the river " might be about twenty yards over, and in depth it far 
exceeded my height." — Journey, p. 83. 



SOUTH AND EAST OF JERUSALEM. 



191 



tians, who made it the seat of a bishop ; but in the twelfth 
century it was overthrown by the infidels, and has not since 
emerged from its ruins. Of all its magnificent buildings 
there remain only the part of one tower, supposed to be the 
dwelling of Zaccheus the publican, and a quantity of rubbish, 
which is understood to mark the line of its ancient walls. 

Mr. Buckingham saw reason to believe that the true site 
of Jericho, as described by Josephus, was at a greater dis- 
tance from the river than the village of Rahhah, commonly 
supposed to represent the City of Palms. Descending from 
the mountains which bound the valley on the western side, 
he observed the ruins of a large settlement, covering at 
least a square mile, whence, as well as from the remains of 
aqueducts and fountains, he was led to conclude that it 
must have been a place of considerable consequence. Some 
of the more striking objects among the wrecks of this an- 
cient city were large tumuli, evidently the work of art, and 
resembling those of the Greek and Trojan heroes on the 
plains of Ilium. . There were, besides, portions of ruined 
buildings, shafts of columns, and a capital of the Corinthian 
order ; tokens not at all ambiguous of former grandeur and 
of civilized life. 

Josephus fixes the position of Jericho at the distance of 
one hundred and fifty furlongs from Jerusalem, and sixty 
from the river Jordan ; stating that the country, as far as 
the capital, is desert and hilly, while to the shores of the 
Lake Asphaltites it is low, though equally waste and un- 
fruitful. Nothing can apply more accurately, in all its 
particulars, than this description does to the ruins just 
mentioned. The spot lies at the very foot of the sterile 
mountains of Judea, which may be said literally to over- 
hang it on the west ; and these ridges are still as barren, 
as rugged, and as destitute of inhabitants as formerly, 
throughout their whole extent, from the Lake of Tiberias 
to the Dead Sea. The distance, by the computation in 
time, amounted to six hours, or nearly twenty miles, from 
Jerusalem ; the space between the supposed city and the 
river being little more than one-third of that amount, the 
precise proportion indicated by the Jewish historian. 

The soil round Jericho was long celebrated for a precious 
balsam, which used to be sold for double its weight of silver. 
The historian Justin relates, that the trees from which it 



192 



DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY 



exudes bear a resemblance to firs, though they are lower, 
and are cultivated after the manner of vines. He adds, 
that the wealth of the Jewish nation arises from their pro- 
duce, as they grow in no other part of Syria. At present, 
however, there is not a tree of any description, either palm 
or balsam, to be seen near the site of this deserted town ; 
but it is admitted, that the complete desolation with which 
its ruins are invested ought to be attributed to the cessation 
of industry rather than to any perceptible change either in 
the climate or the soil. 

Rahhah stands about four miles nearer the river, or 
about half-way between the assumed position of Jericho 
and the bank of the current. It consists of about fifty 
dwellings, all very mean in their appearance, and every one 
fenced in front with thorny bushes ; one of the most effectual 
defences that could be raised against the incursions of the 
Bedouins, whose horses will not approach these formidable 
thickets. The inhabitants, without exception, are professed 
believers in the creed of Islamism. Their habits are those 
of shepherds rather than of cultivators of the soil ; this last 
duty, indeed, when performed at all, being done chiefly by 
the women and children, as the men roam the plain on 
horseback, and derive the principal means of subsistence 
from robbery and plunder. They are governed by a sheik, 
whose influence among them is more like the authority of 
a father over his children than that of a magistrate ; and 
who is, moreover, checked in the exercise of his power, by 
the knowledge that he would instantly be deprived of life 
and station were he to exceed the bounds which, in all rude 
countries, are opposed even to the caprices of despotism. 
It is remarkable that the name of this village corresponds 
to Rahab, the name of the hostess who received into her 
house the Hebrew spies, and signifies odour or perfume ; 
the slight change on the form of the Arabic term implying 
no difference in the import of the root whence they are 
both originally derived. 

The mountains on the eastern side of the Jordan are 
more lofty than those which skirt the Yale of Jericho, being 
not less than 2000 feet in height. From the summit of a 
towering peak, which the traveller still delights to recog- 
nise, Moses was permitted to behold the promised inherit- 
ance, stretching towards the west, the south, and the north, 



SOUTH AND EAST OF JERUSALEM. 



193 



— "All the land of Gilead unto Dan, and all Naphtali, and 
the land of Ephraim, and Manasseh, and all the land of 
Judah unto the utmost sea, and the south, and the plain of 
the Valley of Jericho, the city of palm-trees, unto Zoar, 
And the Lord said unto him, this is the land -which I sware 
unto Abraham, unto Isaac, and unto Jacob, saying, I will 
give it unto thy seed : I have caused thee to see it with 
Thine eyes, but thou shalt not go over thither. So Moses, 
the servant of the Lord, died there, in the land of Moab, 
according to the word of the Lord. And he buried him in 
a valley in the land of Moab, over against Beth-peor : but 
no man knoweth of his sepulchre unto this day."* 

The road from Jericho to Jerusalem presents some his- 
torical reminiscences of the most interesting nature. When 
entering the mountains which protect the western side of 
the plain, the attention of the traveller is invited to the 
Fountain of Elisha, the waters of which were sweetened 
by the power of the prophet. The men of Jericho repre- 
sented to him that though the situation of the town was 
pleasant, " the water was naught, and the ground barren. 
And he said, bring me a new cruse, and put salt therein : 
and thev brought it to him. And he went forth unto the 
spring of the waters, and cast the salt in there, and said, 
thus saith the Lord, I have healed these waters ; there shall 
not be from thence any more death or barren land. So the 
waters were healed unto this day. according to the saving 
of Elisha which he spake. "f 

Its waters are at present received in a basin about nine 
or ten paces long, and five or six broad ; and from thence, 
issuing out in good plenty, divide themselves into several 
small streams, dispersing their refreshment to all the land 
as far as Jericho, and rendering it exceedingly fruitful. Ad- 
vancing into the savage country through which the usual 
road to the capital is formed, the tourist soon finds himself 
at the foot of the mountain called Quarantina, from being 
the supposed scene of the temptation and fast of forty days 
endured by our Saviour, who, 

" looking round on every side, beheld 

A pathless desert dusk with horrid shades : 



* Deut, xxxiv. 1-7, 



R 



| 2 Kings ii. 19-23. 



194 DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY 



The way he came not having marked, return 
Was difficult, by human steps untrod ; 
And he still on was led, but with such thoughts 
Accompanied of things past and to come 
Lodg'd iu his breast, as well might recommend 
Such solitude before choicest society.* 

The neighbourhood of this lofty eminence is, according 
to Mr. Maundrell, a dry, miserable, barren place ; consist- 
ing of high rocky mountains, so torn and disordered, " as 
if the earth had here suffered some great convulsion, in 
which its very bowels had been turned outward." In a deep 
valley are seen the ruins of small cells and cottages, thought 
to be the remains of those sequestered habitations to which 
hermits were wont to retire for the uses of penance and 
mortification ; and it is remarked that, in the whole earth, a 
more comfortless and desert place could not have been 
selected 'for so pious a purpose. From these hills of deso- 
lation, however, there is obtained a magnificent prospect 
of the Plain of Jericho, the Dead Sea, and of the distant 
summits of Arabia ; for which reason the highest of the 
group has been assigned by tradition as the very spot whence 
all the kingdoms of the world were seen in a moment of 
time. It is, as St. Matthew styles it, an exceeding high 
mountain, and in its ascent not only difficult but dangerous. 
It has a small chapel at the top, and another about half-way 
down, founded upon a projecting part of the rock. Near 
the latter are observed several caves and holes, excavated 
by the solitaries, who thought it the most suitable place for 
undergoing the austerities of Lent, — a practice which has 
not even at the present day fallen altogether into disuse. 
Hasselquist describes the path as " dangerous beyond 
imagination. I went as far up on this terrible mountain 
of Temptation as prudence would admit, but ventured not 
to go to the top ; whither I sent my servant, to bring what 
natural curiosities he could find, while I gathered what 
plants and insects I could find below." t 

Mariti, whose religious zeal was fanned into a temporary 
* flame, ascended the formidable steep as far as the grottoes, 
which he delineates with much minuteness. He pronounces 

* Paradise Regained, Book I. v. 295, &c. 

t Among these he found, with great delight, a very curious new cimex 
or bug, p. 129. 



SOUTH AND EAST OF JERUSALEM. 195 



the chapel inaccessible from the side on which he stood, and 
is very doubtful whether it could now be approached on any 
quarter, the ancient road being so much neglected. But it 
should seem that most travellers are smitten with the feel- 
ing which seized the breast of Maundrell, although they 
all have not the candour to acknowledge it. Alluding to 
the Arabs, who demanded a sum of money for liberty to 
ascend, he says, " we departed without further trouble, not 
a little glad to have so good an excuse for not climbing so 
dangerous a precipice."* 

The imagination of Milton has thrown a captivating 
splendour around this scene, which, at the same time, he 
appears to have transferred to the mountain-range beyond 
the Jordan in the country of the Moabites. 

" Thus wore out night ; and now the herald lark 
Left his ground-nest, high towering to descry 
The morn's approach, and greet her with his song : 
As lightly from his grassy couch up rose 
Our Saviour, and found all was but a dream ; 
Fasting he went to sleep, and fasting waked. 
Up to a hill anon his steps he reared, 
From whose high top to ken the prospect round, 
If cottage were in view, sheepcote, or herd ; 
But cottage, herd, or sheepcote, none he saw ; 
Only in a bottom saw a pleasant grove, 
With chant of tuneful birds resounding loud : 
Thither he bent his way ; determined there 
To rest at noon, and entered soon the shade 
High roofed, and walks beneath, and alleys brown, 
That opened in the midst a woody scene."! 

Leaving the Quarantina with its dreary scenes and solemn 
recollections, the pilgrim returning from the Jordan finds 
himself on a beaten path which, since the days of Moses, 
it is probable has connected the rocks of Salem with the 
banks of the sacred river. Chateaubriand informs us that 
it is broad, and in some parts paved ; having undergone, as 
he conjectures, several improvements while the country was 
in possession of the Romans. On the top of a mountain 
there is the appearance of a castle, which, we may con- 
clude, was meant to protect and command the road ; and 
at a little distance, in the bottom of a deep gloomy valley 
is the Place of Blood, called in the Hebrew tongue Abdomim, 



* Journey, p. 80. 



t Paradise Regained, Book II. v. 281 . 



196 DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY 



where once stood a small town belonging to the tribe of 
Judah, and where the good Samaritan is imagined to have 
succoured the wounded traveller who had fallen into the 
hands of thieves. That sombre dell is still entitled to its 
horrible distinction ; it is still the place of blood, of rob- 
bery, and of murder ; the most dangerous pass for him who 
undertakes to go down from Jerusalem to Jericho. 

As a proof of this, we may shortly mention an assault 
which was made upon Sir F. Henniker, who a few years 
ago resolved to accomplish that perilous journey. " The 
route is over hills, rocky, barren, and uninteresting. We 
arrived at a fountain, and here my two attendants paused 
to refresh themselves ; the day was so hot that I was anx- 
ious to finish the journey, and hasten forwards. A ruined 
building, situated on the summit of a hill, was now within 
sight, and I urged my horse towards it ; the janizary gal- 
loped by me, and making signs for me not to precede him, 
he himself rode into and round the building, and then 
motioned me to advance. We next came to a hill, through 
the very apex of which has been cut a passage, the rocks 
overhanging it on either side. I was in the act of passing 
through this ditch when a bullet whizzed by close to my 
head. I saw no one, and had scarcely time to think when 
another was fired, some short distance in advance. I could 
yet see no one ; the janizary was beneath the brow of the 
hill in his descent. I looked back, but my servant was not 
yet within sight. I looked up, and within a few inches of 
my head were three muskets, and three men taking aim at 
me. Escape or resistance was alike impossible. I got off my 
horse. Eight men jumped down from the rocks, and com- 
menced a scramble for me. — As he (the janizary) passed, I 
caught at a rope hanging from his saddle ; I had hoped to 
leap upon his horse, but found myself unable ; my feet 
were dreadfully lacerated by the honeycombed rocks ; 
nature would support me no longer ; I fell, but still clung 
to the rope ; in this manner I was drawn some few yards, 
till, bleeding from my ankle to my shoulder, I resigned my- 
self to my fate. As soon as I stood up one of my pursuers 
took, aim at me ; but the other, casually advancing between 
us, prevented his firing. He then ran up, and with his 
sword aimed such a blow as would not have required a 
second : his companion prevented its full effect, so that it 



SOUTH AND EAST OF JERUSALEM. 



197 



merely cut my ear in halves, and laid open one side of my 
face : they then stripped me naked."* 

It is impossible not to suspect that the depraved govern- 
ment at Jerusalem connives at such instances of violence in 
order to give some value to the protection which they sell at 
a very dear rate to Christian travellers. The administra- 
tion of Mohammed Ali would be a blessing to Palestine, 
inasmuch as it would soon render the intercourse between 
the capital and the Dead Sea as safe as that between Alex- 
andria and Grand Cairo. - 

Refreshing himself at the fountain where our Lord and 
his apostles, according to a venerable tradition, were wont 
to rest on their journey to the holy city, the tourist sets his 
heart on revisiting the sacred remains of that decayed me- 
tropolis. When^ at the summit of the Mount of Olives, he 
is again struck with the mixture of magnificence and ruin 
which marks the queen of nations in her widowed estate. 
Owing to the clear atmosphere and the absence of smoke, 
the view is so distinct that one might count the separate 
houses. The streets are tolerably regular, straight, and 
well paved ; but they are narrow and dull, and almost all 
on a declivity. The fronts of the houses, which are gene- 
rally two or three stories high, are quite plain, simply con- 
structed of stone, without the least ornament ; so that in 
walking past them a stranger might fancy himself in the 
galleries of a vast prison. The windows are very few and 
extremely small ; and, by a singular whim, the doors are so 
low that it is commonly requisite to bend the body nearly 
double in order to enter them. Some families have gardens 
of moderate dimensions ; but, upon the whole, the ground 
within the walls is fully occupied with buildings, if we ex- 
cept the vast enclosures in which are placed the mosques and 
churches. 

There is not observed at Jerusalem any square, properly 
so called ; the shops and markets are universally opened in 
the public streets. Provisions are said to be abundant and 
cheap, including excellent meat, vegetables, and fruit. 
Water is supplied by the atmosphere, and preserved in ca- 
pacious cisterns ; nor is it necessary, except when a long 
drought has exhausted the usual stock, that the inhabitants 
should have recourse to the spring near the brook Kedron. 
* A Visit to Effvpt, &c. p. 265. 
R 2 



198 DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY 



Rice is much used for food ; but as the country is quite un- 
suited to the production of that aquatic grain, it is imported 
from Egypt in return for oil, the staple of Palestine. 

There is a great diversity of costume, everybody adopting 
that which he likes best, whether Arab, Syrian, or Turk ; 
but the lower order of people generally wear a shirt fastened 
round the waist with a girdle, after the example of their 
neighbours in the desert. Ali Bey remarks, that he saw 
very few handsome females in the metropolis ; on the con- 
trary, they had in general that bilious appearance so common 
in the East, — a pale citron colour, or a dead yellow, like 
paper or plaster, and, wearing a white fillet round the cir- 
cumference of their faces, they have not unfrequently the 
appearance of walking corpses. The children, however, are 
much healthier and prettier than those of Arabia and Egypt. 

The Christians and Jews wear, as a mark of distinction, a 
blue turban. The villagers and shepherds use white ones, 
or striped like those of the Moslem. The Christian women 
appear in public with their faces uncovered, as they do in 
Europe. 

The arts are cultivated to a certain extent, but the sci- 
ences have entirely disappeared. There existed formerly 
large schools belonging to the haram ; but there are hardly 
any traces of them left, if their place be not supplied by a 
few small seminaries where children of every form of wor- 
ship learn to read and write the code of their respective re- 
ligion. The grossest ignorance prevails even among per- 
sons of high rank, who, on the first interview, appear to 
have received a liberal education.* 

The Arabic language is generally spoken at Jerusalem, 
though the Turkish is much used among the better class. 
The inhabitants are composed of people of different nations 
and different religions, who inwardly despise one another 
on account of their varying opinions ; but as the Christians 
are very numerous, there reigns among the whole no small 
degree of complaisance, as well as an unrestrained inter- 
course in matters of business, amusement, and even of 
religion.! 

* Travels of Ali Bey, vol. ii. p. 251. 

t The Mussulmans say prayers in all the holy places consecrated to 
the memory of Jesus Christ and the Virgin except the Tomb of the Holy 
Sepulchre, which they do not acknowledge. They believe that Jesus 
Christ did not die, but that he ascended alive into heaven, leaving the 



SOUTH 



AND EAST OF 



JERUSALEM. 



2 90 



It is well remarked by Chateaubriand, who had travelled 
among the native tribes of North America as extensively as 
among the Arabs of the Syrian wilderness, that amid the 
rudeness of the latter you still perceive a certain degree of 
delicacy in their manners ; you see that they are natives of 
that East which is the cradle of all the arts, all the sciences, 
all the religions. Buried at the extremity of the West, the 
Canadian inhabits valleys shaded by eternal forests and 
watered by immense rivers ; the Arab, cast, as it were, upon 
the hio-h road of the world between Africa and Asia, roves 
in the brilliant regions of Aurora over a soil without trees 
and without water. 

The Jews — the children of the kingdom — have been cast 
out, and many have come from the east and the west to oc- 
cupy their place in the desolate land promised to their fathers. 
They usually take up their abode in the narrow space be- 
tween the Temple and the foot of Mount Zion, defended 
from the tyranny of their Turkish masters by their indigence 
and miser}*. Here they appear covered with rags, and sit- 
ting in the dust, with their eyes fixed on the ruins of their 
ancient sanctuary. It has been observed that those descend- 
ants of Abraham who come from foreign countries to fix 
their residence at Jerusalem live but a short time ; while 
such as are natives of Palestine are so wretchedly poor as 
to be obliged to send every year to raise contributions 
among their brethren of Egypt and Barbary.* 

The picture given by Dr. Richardson is much more flat- 
tering. He assures his readers that many of the Jews are 
rich and in comfortable circumstances ; but that they are 
careful to conceal their wealth, and even their comfort, from 
the jealous eye of their rulers, lest, by awakening their cu- 
pidity, some plot of robbery or murder should be devised. 
The whole population has been estimated by different trav- 
ellers as amounting to from fifteen to thirty thousand, con- 
sisting of Mohammedans, Jews, and the various sects of 
Christians. 

likeness of his face to Judas, who was condemned to die for him ; and 
that, in consequence, Judas having been crucified, his body might have 
been contained in this sepulchre, but not that of Jesus Christ. It is for 
this reason that the Mussulmans do not perform any act of devotion at 
this monument, and that they ridicule the Christians who go to revere 
it. — Ali Bey, vol. ii. p. 237. 

* Chateaubriand. Itineraire, torn Ju. p. 169, 



200 DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY 



CHAPTER VII. 

Description of the Country Northward, of Jerusalem. 

Grotto of Jeremiah — Sepulchres of the Kings — Singular Doors— Village 
of Leban— Jacob's Well — Valley of Shechem — Nablous — Samaritans 
— Sebaste — Jennin — Gilead — Geraza, or Djerash — Description of 
Ruins — Gergasha of the Hebrews — Rich Scenery of Gilead — River 
Jabbok — Souf— Ruins of Gamala— Magnificent Theatre — Gadara — 
Capernaum, or Talhewm — Sea of Galilee — Bethsaida and Chorazin— 
Tarachea — Sumuk— Tiberias — Description of modern Town — House 
of Peter — Baths — University — Mount Tor, or Tabor — Description by 
Pococke, Maundrell, Burckhardt, and Doubdan — View from the Top 
— Great Plain — Nazareth — Church of Annunciation — Workshop of 
Joseph — Mount of Precipitation — Table of Christ — Cana, or Kefer 
Kenna — Waterpots of Stone— Saphet, or Szaffad— University — French 
— Sidney Smith — Dan — Sepphoris— Church of St. Anne— Description 
by Dr. Clarke — Vale of Zabulon— Vicinity of Acre. 

Upon leaving the northern gate of Jerusalem, on the road 
which leads to Damascus, there is seen a large grotto much 
venerated by Christians, Turks, and Jews, said to have been 
for some time the residence, or rather the prison, of the 
prophet Jeremiah. The bed of the holy man is shown, in 
the form of a rocky shelf, about eight feet from the ground ; 
and the spot is likewise pointed out on which he is under- 
stood to have written his book of Lamentations. In the 
days of Maundrell, this excavation was occupied by a col- 
lege of dervises. 

We have already alluded to the Sepulchres of the Kings, 
as very singular remains of ancient architecture, and stand- 
ing at a little distance from the city. There still prevails 
some obscurity in regard to the origin and intention of these 
places of burial, occasioned chiefly by the fact recorded in 
Holy Scripture, that the tombs of the kings of Judah were 
on Mount Zion. Pococke held the opinion, that they de- 
rived their name from Helena, the queen of Adiabene, 
whose body was deposited in a cave outside the northern 
wall of Jerusalem ; a conclusion which derives some coun- 
tenance from the fanguage of Josephus, and has been 



NORTHWARD OF JERUSALEM. 



201 



adopted by Dr. Clarke. M. de Chateaubriand, on the con- 
trary, supposes these grottoes to have been appropriated to 
the family of Herod ; and in support of his views quotes a 
passage from the Jewish historian, who, speaking of the 
wall which Titus erected to press Jerusalem still more 
closely than before, says, that "this wall, returning towards 
the north, enclosed the sepulchre of Herod." Now this, 
adds the Frenchman, is the situation of the royal caverns. 

But whoever was buried here, this is certain, to use the 
w r ords of the accurate Maundrell, that the place itself dis- 
covers so great an expense both of labour and treasure, that 
we may well suppose it to have been the work of kings. 
You approach it on the east side through an entrance cut 
out of the rock, which admits you into an open court of 
about forty paces square. On the south side is a portico 
nine paces long and four broad, likewise hewn out of the 
natural rock, and having an architrave running along its 
front adorned with sculpture of fruits and flowers. The 
passage into the sepulchre is now so greatly obstructed with 
stones and rubbish that it is no easy matter to creep through ; 
but having overcome this difficulty you arrive at a large 
room, seven or eight yards square, excavated in the solid 
body of the hill. Its sides and ceiling are so exactly square, 
and its angles so just, that no architect could form a more 
regular apartment ; while the whole is so firm and entire, 
that it resembles a chamber hollowed out of one piece of 
marble. From this room you pass into six others, all of the 
same construction ; the two innermost being somewhat 
deeper than the rest, and are descended to by a certain 
number of steps. 

In every one of these, except the first, w T ere coffins of 
stone placed in niches formed in the sides of the chamber. 
They had at first been covered with handsome lids ; but the 
most of them have been long broken to pieces, and either 
scattered about the apartment, or entirely removed. One 
of white marble was observed by Dr. Clarke, adorned all 
over with the richest and most beautiful carving ; though, 
like all the other sculptured work in the tombs, it repre- 
sented nothing of the human figure, nor of any living thing, 
but consisted entirely of foliage and flowers, and principally 
of the leaves and branches of the vine. The receptacles 
for the dead bodies are not much larger than European 



202 DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY 



coffins ; but, having the more regular form of parallelograms, 
they thereby differ from the usual appearance presented in 
the sepulchral crypts of the country, where the soros is of 
considerable size, and generally resembles a cistern. The 
taste manifested in the" interior of these chambers seems 
also to denote a later period in the history of the arts ; the 
skill and neatness visible in the carving is admirable, and 
there is much of ornament displayed in several parts of the 
work. 

But the most surprising thing belonging to these subter- 
ranean chambers is their doors ; of which, when Mr. 
Maundrell visited Jerusalem, there was still one remaining-. 

111 

" It consisted," says he, " of a plank of stone of about six 
inches in thickness, and in its other dimensions equalling 
the size of an ordinary door, or somewhat less. It was 
carved in such a manner as to resemble a piece of wain- 
scot : the stone of which it was made was visibly of the 
same kind with the whole rock ; and it turned upon two 
hinges in the nature of axles. These hinges were of the 
same entire piece of stone with the door, and were con- 
tained in two holes of the immoveable rock, one at the top 
and another at the bottom.* 

We are informed by Dr. Clarke, that the same sort of 
contrivance is to be found among the sepulchres at Tel- 
messus ; and, moreover, that the ancients had the art of 
being able to close these doors in such a manner that no 
one could have access to the tomb who was not acquainted 
with the secret method of opening them, unless by violating 
the abode of the dead, and forcing a passage through the 
stone. This has been done in several instances at the place 
just named ; but the doors, though broken, still remain 
closed with their hinges unimpaired. f 

In pursuing the road to Nablous, the ancient Shechem, 

* Journey, p. 76. 

t Pausanius, describing the Sepulchre of Helena at Jerusalem, men- 
tions this device : " It was so contrived that the door of the sepulchre, 
which was of stone, and similar in all respects to the sepulchre itself, 
could never be opened except upon the return of the same day and hour 
in each succeeding year. It then opened of itself by means of the me- 
chanism alone, and after a short interval closed again. Such was the 
case at the time stated ; had you tried to open it at any other time, you 
would not have succeeded, but broken it first in the attempt." Paus. in 
Arcad. cap. xvi. — Clarke's Travels^ vol. iv. p. 383. 



NORTHWARD OF JERUSALEM. 



203 



the first village which meets the eye of the traveller is Beer, 
so named from the well or spring where the wayfaring man 
stops to quench his thirst. The inhabitants, who appear 
to be chiefly Arabs, are in the greatest poverty, oppressed 
and alarmed by the incessant demands of their Turkish 
rulers. It is the Michmash of Scripture, celebrated as the 
place whither Jotham fled from the anger of his brother 
Abimelech. It presents, too, the remains of an old church, 
erected, as tradition reports, by the pious Helena, on the 
spot where the Virgin sat down to bewail the absence of 
her son, who had tarried behind in Jerusalem to commune 
with the doctors in the Temple. 

Beyond this interesting hamlet, at the distance of about 
four hours, is Leban, called Lebonah in the Bible, a village 
situated on the eastern side of a delicious vale. The road 
between these two places is carried through a wild and ver r y 
hilly country, destitute of trees or other marks of cultiva- 
tion, and rendered almost totally unproductive by the bar- 
barism of the government. In a narrow dell, formed by 
two lofty precipices, are the ruins of a monastery, being 
in the neighbourhood of that mystic Bethel where Jacob 
enjoyed his vision of heavenly things, and had his stony 
couch made easy by the beautiful picture of ministering 
angels ascending and descending from the presence of the 
Eternal. 

The next object of interest is connected with the name 
of the same patriarch. It is Jacob's Well, — the scene of 
the memorable conference between our Saviour and the 
woman of Samaria. Such a locality was too important to 
be omitted by Helena while selecting sites for Christian 
churches. Over it, accordingly, was erected a large edifice ; 
of which, however, the "voracity of time, aided by the 
Turks," has left nothing but a few foundations remaining. 
Maundrell tells us that " the well is covered at present with 
an old stone vault, into which you are let down through a 
very straight hole ; and then removing a broad flat stone 
you discover the mouth of the well itself. It is dug in a 
firm rock, and extends about three yards in diameter and 
thirty-five in depth ; five of which we found full of water. 
This confutes a story commonly told to travellers who do 
not take the pains to examine the well, namely, that it is 
dry all the year round except on the anniversary of that 



204 DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY 



day on which our Blessed Lord sat upon it ; but then bub- 
bles up with abundance of water."* 

At this point the traveller enters the narrow valley of 
Shechem, or Sychar, as it is termed in the New Testament, 
overhung on either side by the two mountains Gerizim and 
Ebal. These eminences, it is well known, have obtained 
much celebrity as the theatre on which was pronounced the 
sanction of the Divine law — the blessings which attend 
obedience, and the curses which follow the violation of the 
heavenly statutes. " And it shall come to pass, when the 
Lord thy God hath brought thee in unto the land whither 
thou goest to possess it, that thou shalt put the blessing 
upon Mount Gerizim, and the curse upon Mount Ebal. 
Are they not on the other side Jordan, by the way where 
the sun goeth down, in the land of the Canaanites, which 
dwell in the champaign over against Gilgal, beside the plains 
ofMorehr't 

Every reader is aware that the Samaritans, whose prin- 
cipal residence since the captivity has been at Shechem, 
have a place of worship on Mount Gerizim, to which they 
repair at certain seasons to perform the rites of their reli- 
gion. It was upon the same hill, according to the reading 
in their version of the Pentateuch, that the Almighty com- 
manded the children of Israel to set up great stones covered 
with plaster, on which to inscribe the body of their law ; 
to erect an altar ; to offer peace-offerings ; and to rejoice 
before the Lord their God. In the Hebrew edition of the 
same inspired books, Mount Ebal is selected as the scene 
of these pious services ; — a variation which the Samaritans 
openly ascribe to the hatred and malignity of the Jews, 
who, they assert, have in this passage corrupted the sacred 
oracles. In the immediate vicinity of the town is seen a 
small mosque, which is said to cover the sepulchre of 
Joseph, and to be situated in the field bought by Jacob 
from Hamor, the father of Shechem, as is related in the 
book of Genesis, and alluded to by St. John in the fourth 
chapter of his gospel.t 

The road from Leban to Nablous, or Naplosa, is de- 

* Journey, p. 63. t Deut. xi. 29, 30. 

| " Then cometh he to a city of Samaria, which is called Sychar, near 
to the parcel of ground that Jacob gave to his son Joseph. Now Jacob's 
Well was there.— John iv. 5, 6. 



NORTHWARD 



OF JERUSALEM. 



205 



scribed by Dr. Clarke as being mountainous, rocky, and 
full of loose stones. Yet, he adds, the cultivation is every- 
where marvellous ; affording one of the most striking pic- 
tures of human industry that it is possible to behold. The 
limestone rocks and shingly valleys of Judea are entirely 
covered with plantations of figs, vines, and olive-trees ; not 
a single spot seemed to be neglected. The hills, from their 
bases to their upmost summits, are overspread with gar- 
dens ; all of them free from weeds, and in the highest state 
of improvement. Even the sides of the most barren 
mountains have been rendered fertile, by being divided into 
terraces, like steps rising one above another, upon which 
soil has been accumulated with astonishing labour. A sight 
of this territory can alone convey any adequate idea of its 
surprising produce ; it is truly the Eden of the East, re- 
joicing in the abundance of its wealth. The effect of this 
upon the people was strikingly portrayed in their counte- 
nances. Instead of the depressed and gloomy looks seen 
on the desolated plains belonging to the Pasha of Damas- 
cus, health and hilarity everywhere prevailed. Under a 
wise and beneficent government, the produce of the Holy 
Land, it is asserted, would exceed all calculation. Its peren- 
nial harvests, the salubrity of its air, its limpid springs, its 
rivers, lakes, plains, hills, and vales, added to the serenity 
of its climate, prove this land to be indeed a " field which 
the Lord hath blessed."* 

The ancient Shechem is one of the most prosperous 
towns in the Holy Land, being still the metropolis of a 
rich and extensive country, and abounding in agricultural 
wealth. Nor is there any thing finer than its appearance 
when viewed from the heights by which it is surrounded. 
It strikes the eye of the traveller who advances from the 
north, as being imbosomed in the most delightful and fra- 
grant bowers, half-concealed by rich gardens and stately 
trees, collected into groves all round the beautiful valley in 
which it stands. There is a considerable trade, as well as 
a flourishing manufacture of soap ; and the population has 
been reckoned as high as ten thousand, — an estimate, how- 
ever, which Mr. Buckingham thinks somewhat overrated. 
Within the town are six mosques, five baths, one Christian 

* Travels, vol. iv. p. 284. 
S 

% 



208 



DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY 



church, an excellent covered bazaar for fine goods, and an 
open one for provisions, besides numerous cotton-cloth 
manufactories, and shops of every description. The in- 
habitants are chiefly Mohammedans. The Jews, inheriting 
their ancient enmity towards the Samaritans, avoid the 
country which the latter formerly possessed ; while the 
Christians, alienated by the suspicion of heresy among 
their brethren at Nablous, prefer the more orthodox assem- 
blies at Jerusalem and Nazareth. 

T'he Samaritans themselves do not exceed forty in num- 
ber. They have a synagogue in the town, where they per- 
form divine service every Saturday. Four times a year 
they go in solemn procession to the old temple on Mount 
Gerizim ; on which occasion they meet before sunrise, and 
continue reading the Law till noon. On one of these days 
they kill six or seven rams. They have but one school 
in Nablous where their language is taught, though they 
take much pride in preserving ancient manuscripts of their 
Pentateuch in the orioinal character. Mr. Connor saw a 
copy which is reported to be three thousand five hundred 
years old, but was not allowed to examine, nor even to 
touch it. 

If any thing connected with the memory of past ages be 
calculated to awaken local enthusiasm, the land around 
this city is eminently entitled to that distinction. The 
sacred record of events transacted in the fields of Shechem 
is from our earliest years remembered with delight. " Along 
the valley," observes a late traveller, "we beheld a com- 
pany of Ishmaelites coming from Gilead, as in the days of 
Reuben and Judah, with their camels, bearing spicery, and 
balm, and myrrh ; who would gladly have purchased an- 
other Joseph of his brethren, and conveyed him as a slave 
to some Potiphar in Egypt.. Upon the hills around flocks 
and herds were feeding as of old ; nor in the simple garb 
of the shepherds of Samaria was there any thing to con- 
tradict the notions we may entertain of the appearance 
formerly exhibited by the sons of Jacob. 5 '* 

It has been remarked in reference to Jacob's Well, where 
our Lord held his conversation with the woman of Samaria, 
that no Christian scholar ever read the fourth chapter of 



* Clarke, vol. for, p. 275. 



NORTHWARD OF JERUSALEM. 



207 



St. John's Gospel without being struck with the numerous 
internal evidences of truth which crowd upon the mind in 
its perusal. Within so small a compass it is impossible to 
find, in other writings, so many sources of reflection and 
of interest. Independently of its importance as a theo- 
logical document, it concentrates so much information that 
a volume mio-ht be filled with its singular illustration of the 
history of the Jews and the geography of the country. All 
that can be collected upon these subjects from Josephus 
seems to be but a comment on this chapter. The journey 
of our Lord from Judea into Galilee — the cause of it — his 
passage through Samaria — his approach to the metropolis 
of that country — its name — his arrival at the Amorite field 
which terminates the narrow Valley of Shechem — the an- 
cient custom of stopping at a well — the female employment 
of drawing water — the disciples sent into the city for food, 
by which the situation of the well and of the town is so 
obviously implied — the question of the woman referring to 
existing prejudices which separated the Jews from the Sa- 
maritans — the depth of the well — the oriental allusion con- 
tained in the expression " living water" — the history of the 
well itself, and the customs thereby illustrated — the worship 
upon Mount Gerizim — all these occur within a few verses, 
and supply a species of evidence for the truth of the nar- 
rative in which they are imbodied that no candid mind has 
ever been able to resist.* 

The ancient Samaria presents itself to the traveller in 
these days under the name of Sebaste, or the Venerable, — 
an appellation conferred upon it by Herod in honour of his 
patron Augustus. The Jewish historian describes "at length 
the buildings erected by the Idumean prince, especially a 
citadel, and a noble temple which he intended to exhibit to 
future generations as a specimen of his taste and munifi- 
cence. He adds, that the town was twenty furlongs in 
circumference, and distant one day's journey from Jerusa- 
lem. It is computed by modern tourists to be more than 
forty miles. The situation is extremely beautiful as well 
as naturally strong, being placed on a large hill encom- 
passed all round by a broad deep valley, and therefore 
capable of an easy and complete fortification. But the 



* Clarke, vol, iv. p, 280, 



208 



DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY 



splendid city of Herod is now reduced to a village, small 
arid poor, exhibiting only the remains of its former great- 
ness. In one place, according to Dr. Richardson, there are 
sixty columns of the Ionic order extended in a single row, 
marking the site of some gorgeous structure erected by the 
vassal of Augustus. Mr. Buckingham counted eighty-three 
of these pillars, and alludes to a tradition current among 
the natives, that they formed part of Herod's own palace. 
This may be the edifice mentioned by Josephus, who says 
that the king just named built a sacred place of a furlong 
and a half in circuit, and adorned it with all sorts of deco- 
rations ; and therein constructed a temple remarkable both 
for its largeness and its beauty. 

Mr. Maundrell relates, that in his time the place where 
the city had stood was entirely converted into gardens ; 
and all the tokens that remain to testify that there ever was 
such a metropolis are only a large square piazza surrounded 
with pillars, and some poor ruins of a church, said to have 
been built by the Empress Helena over the place where St. 
John the Baptist was both imprisoned and beheaded. In 
the body of this temple you go down a staircase into the 
very dungeon where that holy blood was shed. The Turks 
hold the prison in great veneration, and over it have erected 
a small mosque ; but for a little piece of money they suffer 
you to go in and satisfy your curiosity at pleasure. 

A hundred and thirty years, aided by the destructive 
habits of Mohammedans, seem to have made a deep im- 
pression upon the remains of Sebaste ; for when Dr. Clarke 
passed through it, he could not discover even the relics of a 
great city, and was, therefore, disposed to question the ex- 
istence of the splendid ruins mentioned by Maundrell, and 
more minutely described by Richardson and Buckingham. 
He is inclined to identify the site of the ancient Samaria 
with the high ground on which stands the castle of San- 
torri ; but his reasoning is not sufficiently cogent to satisfy 
the mind even of the least reflecting among his readers. 

At this point we leave the territory of Ephraim, and pass 
into that of the half-tribe of Manasseh. Pursuing his course 
northwards, the traveller reaches a small hamlet called Beth- 
amareen ; and afterward, at the distance of three or four 
miles, he finds himself at Gibba, a village surrounded with 
trees bearing olives and pomegranates, and occupying a 



NORTHWARD OF JERUSALEM. 



209 



lofty station over a narrow valley. This place is succeeded 
by Sannour, which appears to be nothing more than a castle 
erected on an insular hill, and is more commonly known by 
the name of Fort Giurali. Another village, called Abati, 
presents itself on the right-hand, imbosomed in a grove of 
fruit trees ; but the stranger, desirous to proceed, advances 
along the valley until, after having ascended a rising ground, 
he beholds stretched out at his feet the fine plain of Esdrae- 
lon covered with the richest pasture.* 

On the slope of the hill which bounds the southern ex- 
tremity of this fertile valley stands the town of Jennin, a 
place, like most of the cities of Palestine, more remarkable 
for decayed grandeur than for actual wealth, beauty, or 
power. Its ancient name was Ginoa, and it is found re- 
corded in the works of some of the older writers as a fron- 
tier place between Samaria and Galilee. The population 
at present is said to amount to about eight hundred ; but 
the ruins of a palace and a mosque prove that it once pos- 
sessed a greater importance than now belongs to it. Marble 
pillars, fountains, and even piazzas still remain in a very 
perfect state ; an Arabic inscription over one of which 
induces the reader to believe that it was erected by a com- 
mander named Selim. 

Instead of pursuing our course towards Nazareth and the 
Lake of Tiberias, we shall now cross the Jordan into the 
Land of Gilead, and lay before our readers a brief outline 
of the discoveries which have been recently made in that 
section of Palestine, the inheritance of Reuben and of Gad. 
We have already remarked, that to the indefatigable exer- 
tions of Dr. Seetzen the world are indebted for much of the 
knowledge they possess relative to the ancient city of Ge- 
raza, the ruins of which are pointed out by the Arabs under 
the name of Djerash. 

Approaching it from the south, the traveller first observes 
a triumphal gateway, nearly entire, bearing a striking re- 
semblance in point of workmanship to the remains of An- 
tinoe in Upper Egypt. The front presents four columns 
of a small diameter, and constructed of many separate pieces 
of stone : their pedestals are of a square form, but tali and 
slender. On each of these is placed a design of leaves, very 



* Richardson, vol. ii, p= 415 
S 2 



210 



DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY 



like a Corinthian capital without the volutes ; and on this 
again rises the shaft, which is plain, and composed of many 
small portions. As all the columns were broken near the 
top, the crowning capitals are not seen. The pediment and 
frieze are also destroyed ; but enough remains to give an 
accurate idea of the original design, and to prove that the 
order of the architecture was Corinthian. The building 
appears to have been a detached triumphal arch, erected for 
the entrance of some victorious hero passing into the city. 

Just within this gateway is perceived an extensive nau- 
machia, or theatre for the exhibition of sea-fights, constructed 
of fine masonry, and finished on the top with a large mould- 
ing wrought in the stone. The channels for filling it with 
water are still visible. Passing onward there is seen a 
second gateway, exactly similar in design to the one already 
mentioned, but connected here on both sides with the walls 
of the city, to which it seems to have formed -the proper en- 
trance. Turning to the left the stranger advances into a 
large and beautiful colonnade arranged in a circular form, 
all of the Ionic order, and surmounted by an architrave. 
He next perceives beyond this point a long avenue of 
columns in a straight line, supposed to mark the direction 
of some principal street that led through the whole length 
of the town. These columns are all of the Corinthian order, 
and the range on each side is ascended to by a flight of steps. 

Making his way along this imaginary street over masses 
of ruins, his attention is attracted by four magnificent pil- 
lars of greater height and larger diameter than the rest ; 
but, like all the others, supporting only an entablature, and 
probably standing before the front of some principal edifice 
now destroyed. He next arrives at a square formed by the 
first intersection of the main street by one crossing it at 
right angles, and, like it also, apparently once lined on both 
sides by an avenue of columns. At the point of intersection 
are four masses of building resembling pedestals ; on the top 
of which there probably stood small Corinthian columns, as 
shafts and capitals of that order are now scattered below. 
Passing the fragments of a solid wall on the left, which ap- 
pears to have constituted the front of a large edifice, the 
tourist next comes to the ruins of a temple of a semicircular 
form, with four columns in front, and facing the principal 
street in a right line. The spring of its half-dome is still 
remaining, as well as several columns of yellow marble and 



NORTHWARD OF JERUSALEM. 



211 



of red granite. The whole seems to have been executed 
with peculiar care, especially the sculpture of the friezes, 
cornices, pediments, and capitals, which are all of the Co- 
rinthian order, and considered not less rich and chaste than 
the works of the best ages. On a broken altar near this 
ruin is observed an inscription, containing the name of Mar- 
cus Aurelius. "Beyond this, again," says Mr. Bucking- 
ham, " we had temples, colonnades, theatres, arched build- 
ings with domes, detached groups of Icvnic and Corinthian 
columns, bridges, aqueducts, and portions of large buildings 
scattered here and there in our way ; none of which we 
could examine with any degree of attention, from the re- 
straint under which our guides had placed us."* 

The author of the unpublished journal from which we 
have already drawn some rich materials inspected the re- 
mains of Geraza three years ago. " We set out for the 
ruins, and reached them before sunrise. Having seen them 
only partially by a faint light and from a distance the pre- 
vious evening, I had not formed a high opinion of them, and 
wondered that they should ever have been brought into com- 
parison with Palmyra. A full examination now altered my 
decision, and left me and all the party full of admiration at 
the grandeur and the elegance of the ruins. We were 
struck with the view down the main street of the city. 
Close to us was a temple, a fine mass of building, surrounded 
by innumerable fallen columns and ruined cornices. Be- 
neath was the great street, commencing in an elegant cir- 
cular or rather oval colonnade of fifty-seven pillars, and con- 
taining a succession of straight colonnades on each side, 
crossed at right angles by another line of columns with an 
entablature. On one side was a splendid temple with 
columns, on a height ; and on the other a bridge crossing 
the stream on which the ruins stand. Close to this temple 
is a theatre in remarkably high repair ; almost all the seats 
are quite entire. The proscenium is still sufficiently so to 
give a complete idea of the plan ; and it is easy to sit on one 
of the benches and fancy a Greek play performing to a Ge- 
razan audience as it was seventeen hundred years ago. 
Proceeding northward along the great street, we soon came 
to a building which seemed to me one of the finest things in 



* Travels in Palestine, &c. by J. S. Buckingham, vol. ii. p. 144. 



212 DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY 



Jerash. It was a sort of semicircular temple, in front of 
which had been a portico of Corinthian columns, composing 
part of the grand colonnade. I do not think they can be 
under fifty feet in height, and their form is very elegant. 
The semicircular building itself is covered with a half-dome, 
and ornamented with particular richness and beauty. It is 
remarkable throughout these ruins, how admirably the 
columns and buildings are disposed for producing effect in 
combination. Of two bridges, a good deal of the one to the 
east remains, and the arches reach across the river, though 
it is not passable, owing to the destruction of the upper part. 
There is a paved road between the colonnades leading from 
the bridge." 

The ground occupied by this city, which was nearly in 
the form of a square, might have been enclosed by aline of 
four English miles in length ; the distance from the ruined 
gateway on the south to the small temple on the north being 
about five thousand feet. It stood on the corresponding 
slopes of two opposite' hills, with a narrow but not a deep 
valley between them, through which ran a clear stream of 
water springing from fountains near the centre of the town, 
and bending its way thence to the southward. But so 
complete is the desolation of this once magnificent place, that 
Bedouin Arabs now encamp among its ruins for the sake of 
the rivulet by which they are washed, as they would collect 
near a well in the midst of their native desert. Such por- 
tions of the soil as are still cultivated, are ploughed by men 
who claim no property in it ; and the same spot accordingly 
is occupied by different persons every succeeding year, as 
time and chance may happen to direct. 

Mr. Buckingham thinks that the similarity of situation, 
as well as of name, would lead to the conclusion that this 
Jerash of the Arabs is the same with the Gergasha of the 
Hebrews. Reland gives a variety of derivations, quoted 
from Pliny, Jamblichus, Epiphanius, and Origen ; all of 
which are much more satisfactory as they regard the po- 
sition of a certain town in the Land of Gilead, than as they 
convey any precise ideas as to its etymological import. 
After the Romans conquered Judea, the country beyond the 
Jordan became one of their favourite colonies ; to which, 
from the circumstance of its containing ten cities, they 
gave the name of Decapolis, — an appellation recognised by 



NORTHWARD OF JERUSALEM. 



213 



St. Mark in the seventh chapter of his Gospel. Geraza, it 
is presumed, was one of those cities ; and although its his- 
tory is darkened with more than the usual doubt which 
attaches to the Jewish annals after the fall of Jerusalem, 
there is reason to believe that in the time of Vespasian it 
suffered the penalty of rebellion, and was finally destroyed 
by the Saracens when they attacked the eastern boundaries 
of the empire. 

We must satisfy ourselves with a mere glance at the hills 
of Gilead ; the rich pasture-lands of the tribe of Reuben, 
and formerly the kingdom of the gigantic Og, the monarch 
of Bashan. It is well known that the Valley of the Jordan 
is bounded on the east by a range of mountains still more 
lofty than those which skirt its western limits ; but it was 
not suspected till lately that the former concealed in their 
recesses some of the richest scenery and most valuable land 
anywhere to be found in Palestine. Rising gradually from 
the bed of the river, the traveller soon finds himself on a 
platform seven or eight hundred feet above its level ; form- 
ing a district of extraordinary fertility, abounding with the 
most beautiful prospects, clothed with thick forests, diversi- 
fied with verdant slopes, and possessing extensive plains of 
a fine soil, yielding in nothing to the most prolific parts of 
Galilee and Samaria. " We continued our way," says Mr. 
Buckingham, " to the north-east, through a country, the 
beauty of which so surprised us, that we often asked each 
other what were our sensations ; as if to ascertain the 
reality of what we saw, and persuade each other, by mutual 
confessions of our delight, that the picture before us was 
not an optical illusion. The landscape alone, which varied 
at every turn, and gave us new beauties from any point of 
view, was of itself worth all the pains of an excursion to the 
eastward of the Jordan ; and the park-like scenes that 
sometimes softened the romantic wildness of the general 
character as a whole, reminded us of similar spots in less 
neglected lands."* 

The scenery continues of the same fascinating description 
till the traveller reaches the Nahr el Zerkah, or river Jab- 
bok, the ancient boundary between the Amorites and the 
Children of Ammon. The banks are thickly clothed with 



* Travels in Palestine, vol. ii. p. 104. 



Si4 



DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY 



the oleander and plane-tree, the wild olive and almond, and 

many flowering- shrubs of great variety and elegance. The 
stream is about thirty feet broad, deeper than the Jordan, 
and nearly as rapid, rushing downwards over a rocky chan- 
nel. On the northern side begins the kingdom of Bashan, 
celebrated for its oaks, its cattle, and the bodily strength of 
its inhabitants. The opposite plate exhibits a view of the 
Jabbok, and of the bold Alpine range which fenced the ter- 
ritory of one of the most formidable enemies of Israel ; veri- 
fying in its fullest extent the description of Moses, who 
savs, " The border of the children of Ammon was strong."* 

The curious reader will find in the Travels of Mr. Buck- 
ingham some ingenious reasoning employed by him to fix 
the locality of Bozor, Ramoth, Jabesh, and other towns 
situated in Gilead, and which were rendered important by 
the various events recorded in the sacred volume. 

About six miles from Djerash towards the north stands 
the village of Souf, on the brow of a lofty hill, and flanked 
by a deep ravine. It retains several marks of having been 
the site of some more ancient and considerable town, pre- 
senting large blocks of stone with mouldings and sculpture 
wrought into the modern buildings. In the neighbourhood 
are seen the walls of an edifice apparently Roman, as also 
the ruins of two small towers which may with equal 
certainty be traced to the age of Saracenic domination. 
Souf can boast of nearly five hundred inhabitants, all rigid 
Mohammedans, and remarkable for a surly and suspicious 
character. 

Leaving this rather inhospitable village, the traveller who 
wishes to visit the remains of Gamala proceeds in a north- 
westerly direction, descending into a fine valley, and again 
rising on a gentle ascent, the whole being- profusely and 
beautifully wooded with evergreen oaks below, and pines 
upon the ridge of the hill above. " Mr. Bankes, who had 
seen the whole of England, the greater part of Italy and 
France, and almost every province of Spain and Portugal, 
frequently remarked, that in all his travels he had met with 
nothing equal to it, excepting only in some parts of the 
latter country, — Entre Minho and Douro, — to which alone 
he could compare it."t 



* Numc xxi. 24. Deut. ii. 37. 



t Buckingham, vol. ii. p. S44. 



NORTHWARD OF JERUSALEM. 



217 



Several hamlets and some obscure indications of ancient 
buildings meet the eye in course of the journey to Om Keis. 
Before reaching this town, the road emerges into a hilly dis- 
trict, bleak, rocky, and ill-cultivated. The view is as 
monotonous as that from Jerusalem, forming a striking con- 
trast to the rich, verdant, and beautiful scenery which dis- 
tinguishes Bashan and Gilead. 

Gamala, for under that name the ruins of the Roman sta- 
tion are most familiarly known, must have covered a site 
nearly square ; its greatest length, from east to west, being 
seventeen hundred short paces, and its breadth about one- 
fourth less. A considerable portion of it seems to have 
stood on the summit of a hill, well fortified all round ; the 
traces of towers and other works of defence beina still visible 
even on its steepest parts. The portals of the eastern gate 
remain, from whence a noble street appears to have run 
through the whole length of the city, lined by a handsome 
colonnade of Ionic and Corinthian pillars. The pavement 
is formed of square blocks of black volcanic stone, and is still 
so perfect, that the ruts of wheel-carriages are to be seen in 
it, of different breadths and about an inch in depth, as at the 
ruins of Pompeii and Herculaneum.* 

The first edifice w r hich presents itself on entering the 
eastern gate is a theatre, the scene and front of which are 
entirely destroyed, but the benches are preserved. Still 
farther on are appearances of an Ionic temple, the colon- 
nade of the street being continued ; and about half-way 
along is a range of Corinthian pillars on pedestals, marking 
the position of some grand edifice. Not a column, indeed, 
continues erect, but the plan can be distinctly traced. This 
supposed temple must have been a hundred paces in depth 
from north to south ; and its facade, which fronted the 
street and came in a line with the grand colonnade already 
mentioned, cannot have been less than a hundred and 
eighty feet in breadth. The chief peculiarity of this struc- 
ture, however, consists in its having been built on a range 
of fine arches, so that its foundations were higher than the 
general level of the town ; and hence, as the pedestals of the 
columns were elevated considerably above the street, it must 
have presented a very striking object. 



* Travels in Palestine, p. I5v, 
T 



218 



DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY 



There are the remains of numerous other edifices, theatres, 
and temples, but they are all too indistinct to enable even a 
professional eye to pronounce with confidence on their plan 
and particular purpose. The prevalent orders of architec- 
ture are Ionic and Corinthian, though some few capitals 
decidedly Doric are discovered among the ruins. The 
stone generally used throughout the city is that of the 
neighbouring mountains, — a species of gray rock approach- 
ing to a carbonate of lime ; but the shafts of some of the 
pillars are formed of a black substance, supposed to have a 
volcanic origin, and most commonly preferred for the inter- 
nal decorations of funereal vaults and sarcophagi.* 

As the ruins here described are not immediately on the 
position usually assigned to Gamala on the maps, and as Dr. 
Seetzen, the only person besides Mr. Buckingham who has 
published any account of them, thinks that they are those 
of Gadara, the latter enters into a lengthened discussion in 
support of his own views, calling in the authority of several 
ancient writers to establish his position. The reader will 
find that much of the ambiguity which prevails on this point 
arises from the fact of there being in different parts of 
Canaan several towns of the same name. For example, 
there was unquestionably a place called Gadara on the 
eastern shore of the Lake of Tiberias ; while, from the 
testimony of Josephus, it is equally certain that the same 
appellation was given to the capital of Perea. In the New 
Testament, the country of the Gadarenes is described as 
being on the other side of the sea, over-against Galilee, — 
a notice which removes all doubt from the opinion of those 
who maintain the existence of a town or village, named 
Gadara, situated to the northward of the site generally 
claimed for Gamala, and nearer the body of the lake. 

Mr. Buckingham tells us, that the account given in the 
gospel of the habitation of the demoniac, out of whom 
the legion of devils was cast, struck him very forcibly 
while wandering among savage mountains and surrounded 
by tombs, still used as houses by individuals and even by 
whole families. A finer occasion for expressing the pas- 
sions of madness in all their violence, contrasted with the 
serene virtue and benevolence of Him who went about con- 

* Buckingham, vol. ii. p. 261. 



# 



NORTHWARD OF JERUSALEM. 



219 



tinually doing good, could hardly be chosen for the pencil 
of an artist ; and a faithful delineation of the rugged and 
wild majesty of the mountain scenery on the one hand, 
with the still calm of the lake on the other, would give an 
additional charm to the picture.* 

Amid the interesting ruins of Gamala, situated in a bar- 
ren district, alike unfavourable for agriculture, manufac- 
tures, and commerce, it is impossible not to be surprised at 
the indications of wealth and luxury which most have 
centred within its walls. The opulence cannot but have 
been considerable which erected such splendid temples and 
colonnades, and supported two large theatres ; erecting, at 
the same time, such massive tombs and splendid sarcophagi 
for all classes of the population. Its desolation may be 
traced to the rebellious spirit of the inhabitants, and the 
sancruinarv wars to which it led under successive emperors. 
V espasian, whose name is so closely associated with the 
history of Palestine for good and for evil, directed against 
it on more than one occasion the fury of the Roman legions, 
and finally levelled its walls, that they might not again be 
defended by such desperate insurgents. At a later period, 
its remote situation withdrew it from the attention of 
Europeans ; and, in truth, its very existence had ceased to 
be remembered, until its ruins were once more visited by 
travellers in the course of the present century. 

Passing along the eastern border of the lake, and ad- 
vancing towards its northern extremity, the traveller easily 
recognises that desert place where the multitude was fed 
upon the miraculous loaves and fishes. Here, too, was the 
scene of the remarkable punishment inflicted upon the Gad- 
arenes for their insensibility to Divine instruction, as well, 
perhaps, as for their unhallowed pursuit in feeding animals 
forbidden by the law of Moses. The brink of the water 
presents many steep places where such a catastrophe might 
be easily realized. 

At the upper end of the lake are the remains of Caper- 
naum, now called Talhewm, or Tel Hoom, situated about 
ten miles from Tiberias, in a north-easterly direction. This 
village, although at present nothing more than a station of 
Bedouins, appears to have been occupied in former times 



* Travels in Palestine, vol. ii. p. 261. 



220 DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY 



by a settlement of some importance, as the ruins of stately 
buildings are found scattered over a wide space in the 
neighbourhood. The foundations of a magnificent edifice 
can still be traced ; but the structure itself is so much 
dilapidated that it is no longer possible to determine whether 
it was a temple or a palace. The northern end is sixty-five 
paces in length, and, as the eastern wall seems to have 
extended to the edge of the water, its length could not be 
less than five hundred feet. Within this space are seen 
large blocks of sculptured stone, in friezes, cornices, and 
mouldings. 

The appearance of the Sea of Galilee, as seen from this 
point of view at Capernaum, is very grand. Its greatest 
length runs nearly north and south, from fifteen to eighteen 
miles, while its breadth averages from five to six. The 
barren aspect of the mountains on each side, and the total 
absence of wood, give, however, a cast of dulness to the 
picture ; and this is increased even to a feeling of melan- 
choly by the dead calm of its surface, and the silence which 
reigns throughout its whole extent, where not a boat or 
vessel of any kind is to be found. No fisherman any 
longer plies his laborious craft on the bosom of the lake, 
nor seeks to vary his scanty meal by letting down his net 
for a draught. Mr. Buckingham observed, from the heights 
above, shoals of fish darting through the water, and the 
shore in some places covered with storks and diving-birds, 
which repair thither in search of food ; but when, on one 
occasion, he suggested that a supper might be procured for 
his party by exercising a little skill with the rod or net, he 
discovered that the ignorant barbarians whom he addressed 
had not yet taken a lesson from the fowls of the air. 

A circumstance deserving of notice is mentioned by Has- 
selquist, in regard to the tenants of this lake. He thought 
it remarkable that the same kind of fish should be here met 
with as in the Nile, — charmuth, silurus, ba^nni, mulsil, and 
sparus Galilaeus. This explains the observations of certain 
travellers, who speak of the Sea of Tiberias as possessing 
fish peculiar to itself ; not being acquainted perhaps with 
the produce of the Egyptian river. Josephus was of the 
same opinion ; and yet it is worthy of remark, that in de- 
scribing the fountain of Capernaum his conjectures tend 
to confirm the conclusions of the Swedish naturalist 

■ 



NORTHWARD OF JERUSALEM. 221 



14 Some consider it," says the Jewish historian, " as a vein 
of the Nile, because it brings forth fishes resembling the 
coracinus of the Alexandrian lake."* 

That Capernaum was a place of some wealth and con- 
sequence in the time of our Saviour may be inferred from 
the expostulation addressed to it, when he upbraided the 
other cities wherein most of his mighty works were 
done : — " Wo unto thee, Chorazin ! Wo unto thee, Beth- 
saida ! And thou, Capernaum, which art exalted unto 
heaven, shalt be brought down to hell." But the history 
of all the towns on the lake of Genesareth has been covered 
with a cloud which it is now impossible to penetrate ; and 
nothing, accordingly, is more difficult than to determine the 
situations occupied, even during the latter period of the 
Roman ascendency, by some of the principal places on 
which the emperors lavished their wealth and taste. Beth- 
saida was converted by Herod from an insignificant village 
into the dignity and grandeur of a city, named Julias, in 
compliment to the daughter of Augustus. At the present 
moment, however, no traces remain to point out the line of 
its walls or the foundations of its palaces. Genesareth 
has in like manner disappeared ; or if there be any relics 
of the town which once gave its name to the inland sea 
whose shore it adorned, they are so indistinct and ambigu- 
ous as not to merit the notice of the traveller. Tarachea 
is represented by the hamlet of Sumuk, and the ruins of 
Chorazin are imagined to meet the eye somewhere on the 
opposite coast ; but, upon the whole, the denunciation 
uttered against the unbelieving cities of Galilee has been 
literally fulfilled, as they are now brought down to the 
lowest pitch of obscurity and oblivion. f 

Tiberias is the only place on the Sea of Galilee which 
retains any marks of its ancient importance. It is under- 
stood to cover the ground formerly occupied by a town of a 
much remoter age, and of which some traces can still be 
distinguished on the beach, a little to the southward of the 

* Joseph, lib. iii. De Bell Jud. Hasselquist, p. 157. Clarke, iv.'p. 227. 

t Travels in Palestine, vol. ii. p. 359. — " Q,use urbes, quod ipse servator 
Us praedixerat, hodie in ruinis jacent."-— Cluverius, lib. v. cap. 20. " Ca- 
pernaum was visited in the sixth century by Antoninus the Martyr, an 
extract from whose Itinerary is preserved by Reland, who speaks of a 
church erected upon the spot where St. Peter's dwelling once stood." — 
Clarke's Travels vol.iv. p. 211. 

T 2 



222 DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY 



present walls. History relates that it was built by Herod 
the Tetrarch, and dedicated to the Emperor Tiberius, his 
patron, although there prevails, at the same time, an obscure 
tradition, that the new city owed its foundation entirely to 
the imperial pleasure, and was named by him who com- 
manded it to be erected. Josephus notices the additional 
circumstance, which of itself gives great probability to the 
opinion of its being established on the ruins of an oldei 
town, that, as many sepulchres were removed in order to 
make room for the Roman structures, the Jews could hardly 
be induced to occupy houses which, according to their 
notions, were legally impure. Adrichomius considers Ti- 
berias to be the Chinneroth of the Hebrews, and says, that 
it was captured by Benhadad, king of Syria, who destroyed 
it, and was in after-ages restored by Herod, who surrounded 
it with walls, and adorned it with magnificent buildings. 
The old Jewish city, whatever Was its name, probably owed 
its existence to the fame of its hot baths,— an origin to which 
many temples, and even the cities belonging to them, may 
be traced. 

The present town of Tabaria, as it is now called, is in 
the form of an irregular crescent, and is enclosed towards 
the land by a wall flanked with circular towers. It lies 
nearly north and south along the edge of the lake, and has 
its eastern front so close to the water, on the brink of which 
it stands, that some of the houses are washed by the sea. 
The whole does not appear more than a mile in circuit, and 
cannot, from the manner in which they are placed, contain 
above 500 separate dwellings. There are two gates visible 
from without, one near the southern and the other in the 
western wall ; there are appearances also of the town having 
been surrounded by a ditch, but this is now filled up and 
used for gardens. 

The interior presents but few subjects of interest, among 
which are a mosque with a dome and minaret, and two 
Jewish synagogues. There is a Christian place of worship 
called the House of Peter, which is thought by some to be 
the oldest building used for that purpose in any part of Pal- 
estine. It is a vaulted room, thirty feet long by fifteen 
broad, and perhaps fifteen in height, standing nearly east 
and west, with its door of entrance at the western front, and 
its altar immediately opposite in a shallow recess. Over 



\ 



NORTHWARD OF JERUSALEM. 



225 



the door is one small window, and on each side four others, 
all arched and open. The structure is of a very ordinary 
kind, both in workmanship and material ; the pavement 
within is similar to that used for streets in this country ; 
and the walls are entirely devoid of sculpture or any other 
architectural ornament. But it derives no small interest 
from the popular belief that it is the very house which Peter 
inhabited at the time of his being called from his boat to 
follow the Messias. It is manifest, notwithstanding, that 
it must have been originally constructed for a place of di- 
vine worship, and probably at a period much later than the 
days of the apostle whose name it bears, although there is 
no good ground for questioning the tradition which places 
it on the very spot long venerated as the site of his more 
humble habitation. Here too it was, say the dwellers in 
Tiberias, that he pushed off his boat into the lake when 
about to have his faith rewarded by the miraculous draught 
of fishes.* 

Besides the public buildings already specified are the 
house of the aga, on the rising ground near the northern 
quarter of the town, a small bazaar, and two or three cofFee- 
sheds ; the ordinary dwellings of the inhabitants are such 
as are commonly seen in eastern villages, but are marked 
by a peculiarity which Mr. Buckingham witnessed there for 
the first time. On the terrace of almost every house stands 
a small square enclosure of reeds, loosely covered with 
leaves ; to which, he learned, heads of families are wont to 
resort during the summer months, when, from the low situa- 
tion of the town and the absence of cooling breezes, the 
heat of the nights is literally intolerable, t 

* Buckingham, vol. ii. p. 366. 

t " Within two hours and a half of Tiberias, we looked down on a fine 
cultivated plain, quite bare of trees ; beyond which, at a much lower 
level, lay the narrow Valley of the Jordan. This plain was pastured 
over by horses from the town, for the keepers of which white tents were 
scattered about in all directions. We now came in sight of the Sea of 
Galilee: we only saw the northern half, and its size disappointed us; 
but the dark blue still water, the green hills around covered with bushes, 
and the high snnwy ridge of Djibbel el Sheik made a very delightful 
landscape. Tiberias, with its high-feudal citadel, its walls and towers, 
now forms a remarkable feature in the view ; and the steep hills, which 
descend at once to the lake on the east, attract attention from their 
strangely-channelled sides, diversified with dark green bushes and white 
chalky soil. The lake at the town maybe six or eight miles broad. We 
eould sea no stream formed by the Jordan through it. Before it was 



226 



DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY' 



According to the opinion of the best informed among the 
inhabitants, the population of Tiberias (or Tabareeah, as 
they pronounce it) does not exceed two thousand. Of these 
about one-half are Jews, many of whom are from Europe, 
particularly from Germany, Russia, and Poland ; the rest 
are Mohammedans, with the exception of twenty or thirty 
Christian families who profess the tenets of the Latin 
church. 

The warm baths, which have given celebrity to that 
neighbourhood, are still found at the distance of between 
two and three miles southward from the town. The build- 
ing erected on the spring is small and mean, and altogether 
the work of the present rulers of Palestine. The bath itself 
is a square room of eighteen or twenty feet, covered with a 
low dome, and having seats or benches on each side. The 
cistern for containing the hot water is in the centre of this 
room, and sunk below the pavement. It is a square of eight 
or nine feet only, and the spring rises to supply it through 
a small head of some animal ; but this is so badly executed 
that it is difficult to know for what it was intended. Mr. 
Buckingham states, that his thermometer, when immersed 
in the water, instantly rose to 130°, which was the utmost 
limit of the instrument. He is satisfied, however, that the 
heat was much greater, because it was painful to the hand 
as it issued from the spout, and could only be borne by those 
who had bathed in the cistern.* 

Tiberias makes a conspicuous figure in the Jewish annals, 
and was the scene of some of the most remarkable events 
which are recorded by Josephus. After the downfall of Je- 
rusalem, it continued until the fifth century to be the resi- 
dence of Jewish patriarchs, rabbis, and learned men. A 
university was established within its boundaries ; and as 
the patriarchate was allowed to be hereditary, the remnant 

dark we had a very fine view of the lake ; at the southern part it is nar- 
row, and the sides bold. The sun threw a deep shade on this side and 
on the water, while it marked the hills and valleys on the opposite side 
with strong light and shade. The northern part is much wider and 
tamer; but the hills are still high and green, and the lofty snowy moun- 
tain of Djibbel el Sheik rising over them gives great dignity to the land- 
scape. This mountain was very striking late in the evening, as retain- 
ing the sun's rays after every thing around us was in darkness. In all 
respects it is the greatest ornament of the lake, and I am surprised that 
travellers have not mentioned it more." — Anonymous Journal 
* Buckingham, vol. ii. p. 363. 



NORTHWARD OF JERUSALEM. 



.227 



of the Hebrew people enjoyed a certain degree of weight 
and consequence during the greater part of four centuries. 
In the sixth age, if we may confide in the accuracy of Pro- 
copius, the Emperor Justinian rebuilt the walls ; but in the 
following century, the seventh of the Christian era, the city 
was taken by the Saracens, under Calif Omar, who stripped 
it of its privileges, and demolished some of its finest edi- 
fices. It must not be concealed, however, that in the Itine- 
rary of Wiliibald, who performed his journey into the Holy 
Land towards the close of the eighth centurv, mention is 
made of many churches and synagogues which the con- 
querors had either not destroyed or allowed to be repaired.* 
From Tiberias to Nazareth the traveller has to encounter 
an almost uninterrupted ascent. The village of Caber Sabet 
first attracts his attention by its architectural remains, indi- 
cating the existence of an ancient building, which must 
have had marble columns and a magnificent portico. He 
soon afterward reaches Soak el Khan, — a place chiefly cele- 
brated for a weekly market, where every description of com- 
modity in use among the people is collected for sale. It 
also presents the ruins of a Saracenic fort of a square shape, 
with circular towers at the angles and in the centre of each 
wall* 

In pursuing this route we have Mount Tor, or Tabor, on 
the left-hand, rising in solitary majesty from the Plain of 
JEsdraelon. Its appearance has been described by some 
authors as that of a half-sphere, while to others it suggests 
the idea of a cone with its point struck off. According to 
Mr. Maundrell, the height is such as to require the labour of 
an hour to reach the summit ; where is seen a level area 
of an oval, figure, extending about two furlongs in length 
and one in breadth. It is enclosed with trees on all sides 
except the south, and is most fertile and delicious. Having 
been anciently surrounded with walls and trenches, there 

* Dr. Clarke relates, that " the French, during the time their army re- 
mained under Bonaparte in the Holy Land, constructed two very large 
ovens in the earth at Tiberias. Two years had elapsed at the time of 
our arrival since they had set fire to their granary ; and it was considered 
as a miracle by the inhabitants that the combustion was not yet extin- 
guished. We visited rhe place, and perceived, that whenever the ashes 
of the burnt corn were stirred, by thrusting a stick among them, sparks 
were even seen glowing throughout the heap; and a piece of wood left 
there became charred." 



228 DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY 



are remains of considerable fortifications at the present day. 
Burckhardt says, a thick wall, constructed of large stones, 
may be traced quite round the summit, close to the edge of 
the precipice ; on several parts of which are relics of bas- 
tions. The area too is overspread with the ruins of private 
dwellings, built of stone with great solidity. 

Pococke assures us that it is one of the finest hills he 
ever beheld, being a rich soil that produces excellent herb- 
age, and most beautifully adorned with groves and clumps 
of trees. The height he calculates to be about two miles, 
making allowance for the winding ascent ; but he adds, that 
others have imagined the same path to be not less than four 
miles. Hasselquist conjectures that it is a league to the 
top, the whole of which may be accomplished without dis- 
mounting, — a statement amply confirmed by the experience 
of Van Egmont and Heyman. These travellers relate that 
" this mountain, though somewhat rugged and difficult, we 
ascended on horseback, making several circuits round it, 
which took up about three-quarters of an hour. It is one 
of the highest in the whole country, being thirty stadia, or 
about four English miles. And it is the most beautiful we 
ever saw with regard to verdure, being everywhere decorated 
with small oak-trees, and the ground universally enamelled 
with a variety of plants and flowers. There are great 
numbers of red partridges, and some wild boars ; and we 
were so fortunate as to see the Arabs hunting them. We 
left, but not without reluctance, this delightful place, and 
found at the bottom of it a mean village, called Deboura, or 
Tabour, — a name said to be derived from the celebrated De- 
borah mentioned in the book of Judges." 

But this mountain derives the largest share of its celebrity 
from the opinion entertained among Christians since the 
days of Jerome, that it was the scene of a memorable event 
in the history of our Lord. On the eastern part of the hill 
are the remains of a strong castle ; and within the pre- 
cincts of it is the grotto in which are three altars in memory 
of the three tabernacles that St. Peter proposed to build, 
and where the Latin friars always perform mass on the 
anniversary of the Transfiguration. It is said there was 
a magnificent church built here by Helena, which was a 
cathedral when this town was made a bishop's see. On the 
side of the hill they show a church in a grot, where they 



NORTHWARD OF JERUSALEM. 



231 



say Christ charged his disciples not to tell what things they 
had seen till he should be glorified. 

It is very doubtful, however, whether this tradition be 
well founded, or whether it has not, as Mr. Maundrell and 
other writers suspect, originated in the misinterpretation 
of a very common Greek phrase. Our Saviour is said to 
have taken with him Peter, James, and John, and brought 
them into a high mountain " apart ;" from which it has been 
rather hastily inferred that the description must apply to 
Tabor, the only insulated and solitary hill in the neighbour- 
hood. We may remark, with the traveller just named, that 
the conclusion may possibly be true, but that the argument 
used to prove it seems incompetent ; because the term 
" apart" most likely relates to the withdrawing and retire- 
ment of the persons here spoken of, and not to the situation 
of the mountain. In fact, it means nothing more than that 
our Lord and his three disciples betook themselves to a 
private place for the purpose of devotion. 

The view from Mount Tabor is extolled by every travel- 
ler. " It is impossible," says Maundrell, " for man's eyes 
to behold a higher gratification of this nature." On the 
north-west you discern in the distance the noble expanse 
of the Mediterranean, while all around you see the spacious 
and beautiful plains of Esdraelon and Galilee. Turning a 
little southward, you have in view the high mountains of 
Gilboa, so fatal to Saul and his sons. Due east you dis- 
cover the Sea of Tiberias, distant about one day's journey. 
A few points to the north appears the Mount of Beatitudes, 
the place where Christ delivered his sermon to his disciples 
and the multitude. Not far from this little hill is the city 
of Saphet, or Szaffad, standing upon elevated and very- con- 
spicuous ground. Still farther, in the same direction, is 
seen a lofty peak covered with snow, a part of the chain of 
Anti-Libanus. To the south-west is Carmel, and in the 
south the hills of Samaria.* 

* The following extract from the unpublished journal already so often 
referred to will amuse the reader :— " We arrived at the foot of Mount 
Tabor. It is, in its general outline, a round, regular-shaped hill, but is 
rocky and rough enough when it is to be ascended. It has many trees, 
mostly Valonia oaks. It stands on the east of the great Plain of EsdraeMon, 
up a recess formed by Mount Hermon on the one side, and the hills towards 
Nazareth on the other. Its height from the plain I should guess at 1000 feet. 
We ascended the greater part of the way on mule*. On the top of the 



232 DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY 



The plain around, the most fertile part of the Land of 
Canaan, being one vast meadow covered with the richest 
pasture, is the inheritance where the tribe of Issachar 
" rejoiced in their tents." Here it was that Barak, descend- 
ing with his ten thousand men from Tabor, discomfited 
Sisera and all his chariots. In the same neighbourhood 
Josiah, king of Judah, fought in disguise against Necho, 
king of Egypt, and fell by the arrows of his antagonist, 
deeply lamented. The great mourning in Jerusalem, fore- 
told by Zechariah, is said to be as the lamentations in the 
Plain of Esdraelon, as the mourning of Hadadrimmon in 
the Valley of Megiddon. Vespasian reviewed his army in 
the same great plain. It has been a chosen place for en- 
campments in every contest carried on in this country, from 
the days of Nebuchadnezzar, king of the Assyrians, down 
to the disastrous invasion of Napoleon Bonaparte. Jews, 
Gentiles, Saracens, Egyptians, Persians, Druses, Turks, 
Arabs, Christian Crusaders, and Antichristian Frenchmen, 
— warriors out of every nation under heaven, — have pitched 
their tents upon the Plain of Esdraelon, and have beheld 
their various banners wet with the dews of Tabor and of 
Hermon. And shall we not add that here too is to be fought 
the great battle of Armageddon, so well known to all inter- 
preters of prophecy, which is expected to change the aspect 
of the eastern world 1 When the French invaded Syria in 
1799, General Kleber was attacked near a village called 
Fouleh, in the Great Plain, by an army of 25,000 Turks. 
At the head of twelve or fifteen hundred men, whom he 
formed into a square, he continued fighting from sunrise till 
midday, when he had expended all his ammunition. Bona- 
parte, at length, informed of his perilous situation, advanced 
to his support with six hundred soldiers ; at the sight of 
whom the enemy, after having lost several thousands in 
killed and wounded, commenced a hurried retreat, in the 
course of which many of them were drowned in the River 
Daboury, at that time, like another Kishon, overflowing its 

hill is one of those large cisterns, or granaries, so often alluded to before. 
There was one also near Jennin, which we observed in coming in. I 
have since seen them in numerous other places, which puts an end to 
Dr. Clarke's pagan remains. The whole of the Great Plain is fully 
cultivated, yet we could hardly see a single village, which adds to the 
peculiarity of its appearance,— one sheet of cultivation without a rods 
or tree." 



I 



NORTHWARD OF JERUSALEM. 



233 



banks. In a word, the champaign country which stretches 
north-west from Tabor has been the theatre of real or of 
mimic warfare in all ages. u We had the pleasure," says 
Doubdan, 44 to view from the top of that mountain Arabs 
encamped by thousands ; tents and pavilions of all colours, 
green, red, and yellow ; with so great a number of horses 
and camels, that it seemed like a vast army, or a city 
besieged."* 

But we now proceed towards Nazareth, the modern 
Ts r aszera or Xassera, a journey of about two hours from the 
foot of the mountain which we have just examined. It 
seems, says one writer, as if fifteen mountains met to form an 
enclosure for this delightful spot ; they rise round it like the 
edore of a shell to guard it from intrusion. It is a rich and 
beautiful field in the midst of barren hills. The church 
stands in a cave supposed to be the place where the Blessed 
Virgin received the joyful message of the angel, recorded 
in the first chapter of St. Luke's Gospel. It resembles the 
figure of a cross. That part of it which stands for the 
tree of the cross is fourteen paces long and six broad, and 
runs directly into the grot, having no other arch over it at 
top but that of the natural rock. The transverse part is 
nine paces in length and four in width, and is I uilt athwart 
the mouth of the cave. Just at the section cf these divi- 
sions are erected two gratiite pillars, two feet in diameter, 
and about three feet distant from each other. They are 
supposed by the faithful to stand on the very places where 
the angel and the Blessed Virgin respectively stood at the 
time of the Annunciation. f 

When Dr. Clarke visited this sanctuary, the friars pointed 
out the kitchen and the fireplace of the Virgin Mary ; and 
as all consecrated places in the Holy Land contain some 
supposed miracle for exhibition, the monks, he infonns us, 
have taken care not to be altogether deficient in supernatural 
rarities. Accordingly, the first things they show to stran- 
gers who descend into the cave are two stone pillars in the 
front of it ; one of which, separated from its base, is said 

* Clarke, vol. iv. p 260. Boubdan, Voyage delaTerre Sainte, p. 507. 
Paris, 1661. — It is remarkable that all the descriptions of the view from 
Mount Tabor appear to bp borrowed from this sedulous Frenchman, 
whose work, in point of tocography, is still unequalled. 

t Journev. p. 112. 

m 



234 



DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY 



to sustain its capital and a part of its shaft miraculously in 
the air. The fact is, that the capital and a piece of the 
shaft of a pillar of gray granite have been fastened to the 
roof of the grotto ; and " so clumsily is the rest of the 
hocus focus contrived, that what is shown for the lower 
fragment of the same pillar resting upon the earth is not 
of the same substance, but of Cipolino marble."* 

A variety of stories are circulated about the fracture of 
this miraculous pillar. The more ancient travellers were 
told that it was broken by a pasha in search of hidden 
treasure, who was struck with blindness for his impiety ; 
at present it is said that it separated into two parts, in the 
manner in which it still appears, when the angel announced 
to Mary the glad tidings with which he was commissioned. 
Maundrell was not less observant than the author just 
quoted, although he does not so openly expose the decep- 
tion. " It touches the roof above, and is probably hanged 
upon that ; unless you had rather take the friars' account 
of it, namely, that it is supported by a miracle." 

Pococke has proved that the tradition concerning the 
dwelling-place of the parents of Jesus Christ existed at a 
very early period ; because the church built over it is men- 
tioned by writers of the seventh century. Nor is there in 
the circumstance that their abode was fixed in a grotto or 
natural cave, any thing repugnant to the notions usually 
entertained either of the ancient customs of the country or 
of the class of society to which Joseph and his espoused 
wife belonged. But when we are called upon to surrender 
our belief to the legends invented by men whose igno- 
rance is the best apology we can urge for their superstition, 
a certain degree of disgust and indignation is perfectly 
justifiable. 

In such a case we are disposed to question the good 
effects ascribed by some authors to the pious zeal of the 
Empress Helena, who, although she did not in fact erect 
one-half of the buildings ascribed to her munificence, most 
undoubtedly laboured, by her architectural designs, to ob- 
literate every trace of those simple scenes which might 
have been regarded with reasonable veneration in all ages 
of the church. Dr. Clarke, in a fit of spleen with which 



* Clarke, vol. iv. p. 170, 



NORTHWARD OF JERUSALEM. 



235 



we cannot altogether refuse to sympathize, remarks, that 
had the Sea of Tiberias been capable of annihilation by her 
means, it would have been dried up, paved, covered with 
churches and altars, or converted into monasteries and mar- 
kets of indulgences, until every feature of the original had 
disappeared ; and all this by way of rendering it more par- 
ticularly holy.* 

Of the original edifice, said to have been erected by the 
mother of Constantine, some remains may still be observed 
in the form of subverted columns, which, with the frag- 
ments of their capitals and bases, lie near the modern build- 
ing. The present church and convent are of a compara- 
tively recent date, at least so far as the outward structure 
and internal decorations are concerned ; the former being 
filled with pictures supplied by the modern school, all of 
which are said to be below mediocrity. 

Besides the antiquities already mentioned having a refer- 
ence to the early history of our Lord, the traveller is con- 
ducted to the " workshop of Joseph," which is near the 
convent, and was formerly included within its walls. It is 
now a small chapel, perfectly modern, and whitewashed 
like a Turkish sepulchre. After this is shown the syna- 
gogue where the Redeemer is said to have read the Scrip- 
tures to the Jews ; and also the precipice from which the 
monks aver he leaped down to escape the rage of his towns- 
men, who were offended at his application of the sacred 
text. " And all they in the synagogue, when they heard 
these things, were filled with wrath, and rose up, and thrust 
him out of the city, and led him unto the brow of the hill 
whereon their city was built, that they might cast him down 
headlong. But he, passing through the midst of them, 
went his way."t 

The Mount of Precipitation, as it is now called, is, ac- 
cording to Mr. Buckingham, about two miles distant from 

* Vol. iv. p. 174. " Up stairs, above the Chapel of the Incarnation," 
says Dr. Richardson, " we were shown another grotto, which was called 
the Virgin Mary's Kitchen, and a black smoked place in the corner which 
Was called the Virgin Mary's Chimney. I believe none of the cinders, 
fire-irons, or culinary instruments have been preserved ; these probably 
fled with the Santa Casa, or Holy House, to Loretto ; and our only as- 
tonishment is, that the house should have taken flight and left the chim- 
ney and kitchen behind." — Vol. ii, p. 440. 

f Lukeiv 08,29, 30. 



* - 

236 DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY 

Nazareth ; is almost inaccessible, from the steep and rocky 
nature of the road ; and is decidedly not upon the hill 
where the town could ever have been built. Dr. Clarke, on 
the other hand, maintains that the words of the evangelist 
are most explicit, and prove the situation of the ancient 
city to have been precisely that which is now occupied by 
the modern town. In a recess there is an altar hewn 
out of the rock, said to be the very spot where Christ 
dined with his disciples. Close by are two large cisterns 
for preserving rain-water, and several portions of buildings, 
all described as the remains of a religious establishment 
founded by the pious and indefatigable Helena. Imme- 
diately over this scene, and on the edge of a precipice about 
thirty feet in height, are two flat stones set up on their 
edges. In the centre, and scattered over different parts of 
one of them, are several round marks like the deep imprint 
of fingers on wax ; and it is insisted that these are the im- 
pression of our. Saviour's hand when he clung to the stone, 
and thereby escaped being thrown headlong down.* 

One celebrated relic still remains to be noticed, which, 
although it is not alluded to in the New Testament, is 
regularly authenticated by the pope ; who, besides, grants 
a plenary indulgence to every pilgrim visiting the place 
where it is exhibited. This is nothing more than a large 
stone, on which it is affirmed that Christ did eat with his 
disciples both before and after his resurrection from the 
dead. A chapel has been built over it, on the walls of 
which are several copies of a printed certificate, stating the 
grounds of its claim to veneration. Dr. Clarke transcribed 
this curious document, which we give in a note below, ac- 
companied with a translation for the use of such readers 
as have not formed an acquaintance with the Latin 
tongue, t 

* Travels in Palestine, vol. ii. p. 315. 

t " Traditio continua est, et nunquam interrupta, apud omnes nationes 
Orientales, hancpetram, dictam Mensa Christi, illam ipsam esse supra 
quam Dominus noster Jesus Christus cum suis comedit discipulis ante 
et post suam resurrectionem a mortuis. 

" Et sancta Romana ecclesia Ivd(tlgentia.m concessit septem anno- 
rum et totidem quadragenarum, omnibus Christi fidelibus nunc sanctum 
locum visitantibus, recitando saltern ibi unum Pater, et Ave, dummodo 
sint in statu gratis." 

" It is a continued and uninterrupted tradition among all the Eastern 
ehurches, that this stone, called the Table of Christ is that very on© 



i 



NORTHWARD OF JERUSALEM. 



237 



There is not an object in all Nazareth so mucu the resort 
of pilgrims, — Greeks, Catholics, Arabs, and even Turks, — 
as this stone : the former classes on account of the seven 
years' indulgence granted to those who visit it ; the two 
latter, because they believe some virtue must reside in a 
slab before which all comers are so eager to prostrate 
themselves. 

In a valley near the town is a fountain which bears the 
name of the Virgin, and where the women are seen pass- 
ing to and fro with pitchers on their heads, as in the days 
of old. It is justly remarked, that, if there be a spot 
throughout the Holy Land which was more particularly 
honoured by the presence of Mary, we may consider this to 
be the place ; because the situation of a copious spring is 
not liable to change, and because the custom of repairing 
thither to draw water has been continued among the female 
inhabitants of Nazareth from the earliest period of its 
history. 

As another memorial of primitive times, we may mention 
that it is still common in Nazareth to see " two women 
grinding at the mill ;" illustrating the remarkable saying of 
our Lord in reference to the destruction of Jerusalem. 
The two females, seated on the ground opposite to each 
other, hold between them two round fiat stones, such as are 
seen in Lapland, and which in Scotland are usually called 
querns. In the centre of the upper stone is a cavity for 
pouring in the corn ; and by the side of this an upright 
wooden handle for moving it. To begin the operation, one 
of the women with her right hand pushes this handle to her 
companion, who in her turn sends it back to the first, — thus 
communicating a rotatory and very rapid motion to the upper 
stone ; their left hands being all the while employed in 
supplying fresh corn, as fast as the bran and flour escape 
from the sides of the machine.* 

It is not without pleasure that the traveller contemplates 
these unaltered tokens of the simple life which prevailed 

upon which our Lord Jesus Christ ate with his disciples both before and 
after his resurrection from the dead. 

" And the holy Roman church hath granted an Indulgence of seven 
years, and as many lents, to all the faithful in Christ visiting this sacred 
place, upon reciting at least one Pater Noster and an Ave. provided they 
be in a state of grace." 

* Clarke, vol. iv. p. 167. 



238 DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY 



in Palestine at the time when our Saviour abode in the 
house of Mary his mother ; and more especially, as he 
cannot fail to contrast them with the pernicious mummery 
which continues to disgrace the more artificial monuments 
of Christian antiquity. From the extravagances charge- 
able upon the priesthood at all the holy places in Canaan, 
there has resulted this most melancholy fact, that devout 
but weak men, unable to distinguish between monkish fraud 
and simple truth, have considered the whole series of topo- 
graphical evidence as one tissue of imposture, and have left 
the Holy Land worse Christians than when they entered 
it. Credulity and skepticism are extremes too often found 
to approximate ; and the man, accordingly, who suddenly 
relinquishes the one, is almost sure to adopt the other. 

Burckhardt remarks that the church of Nazareth, next to 
the one over the Holy Sepulchre, is the finest in Syria, and 
possesses two tolerably good organs. Within the walls of 
the convent are several gardens and a small burying-ground ; 
the building is very strong, and serves occasionally as a 
fortress to all the Christians in the town. There are eleven 
friars on the establishment, the yearly expenses of which, 
amounting to about 900/., are defrayed by the rent of a few 
houses and the produce of a small portion of land, the 
property of the good fathers. 

Before quitting this interesting place, — the scene where 
our Lord passed the days of his childhood and youth, — we 
may observe, that there is a great variation in the accounts 
given by different travellers as to the number of its inhabit- 
ants. Dr. Richardson restricts it to six or seven hundred ; 
Mr. Buckingham raises it to two thousand ; while others 
assert that it does not fall short of half as many more. 
There are five hundred Turks, and the remainder are Chris- 
tians, — the latter described as a civil and very industrious 
class of people. 

At about an hour and a half towards the north-east, situ- 
ated on the slope of a hill, stands Kefer Kenna, or Cana of 
Galilee, the village where the Redeemer performed his first 
miracle. Here, in a small church belonging to the Greek 
communion, is shown an old stone pot made of the common 
rock of the country, and which is said to be one of the 
original vessels that contained the water afterward con- 
verted into wine. It is worthy of note, says Dr. Clarke, 



NORTHWARD OF JERUSALEM. 239 



that in walking among the ruins of Cana one sees large 
massy pots of stone answering to the description given by 
the evangelist ; not preserved nor exhibited as relics, but 
lying about disregarded by the present inhabitants, as anti- 
quities with the original use of which they are altogether 
unacquainted. From their appearance, and the number of 
them, it is quite evident that the practice of keeping water 
in large stone pots, each holding from eighteen to twenty- 
seven gallons, was once common in the country. 

The remains of the house in which the marriage was 
celebrated are likewise pointed out to the traveller, who, at 
the present day, is permitted to examine curiosities with 
greater deliberation than was allowed to honest Doubdan.* 
This pious confessor, whose zeal prompted him to leave 
nothing unexplored, found an old church in the village, 
ascribed as usual to the inexhaustible beneficence of St. 
Helena; but his attention was more pleasantly engaged in 
tracing the course of the stream which issues from the 
sacred fountain whence the water was drawn for the mar- 
riage-feast. There is still a limpid spring near the village, 
which affords to the inhabitants their daily supply of a de- 
licious beverage. Pilgrims repair to it moved by feelings 
of piety, or, as Doubdan expresses it, to satisfy at once 
their devotion and their thirst. A few olive-trees being 
near the spot, travellers alight, spread their carpets, and, 
having filled their pipes, generally smoke tobacco and take 
some coffee ; always preferring repose in these places to 
any accommodations which can be obtained in the village. 
Such has been, the custom of. the country from time imme- 
morial, extending, not only to the wayfaring man, but also 
to the shepherds on the surrounding hills, and to the com- 
panies of merchantmen whose trade carries them through 
the neighbouring deserts, f 

* " De la nous retournasmes sur nos pas, a l'entree du village par oh 
nous avions passe, pour aller voir la Fontaine ou on alia puiser l'eau qui 
servit a ce miracle ; mais en allant ces femmes et enfans nous penserent 
accabler de pierres et cPinjures, tant ils sont inhumains et enemies des 
Chrestiens." — Le Voyage, &e. p. 512. 

t Clarke, iv. p. 187. "We were afterward conducted into the chapel, 
in order to see the relics and sacred vestments there preserved. When 
the poor priest exhibited these, he wept over them with so much sin- 
cerity, and lamented the indignities to which the holy places were 
exposed in terms so affecting, that all our pilgrims wept also. Such 



\ 



240 DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY 

As we must now leave the interior of Palestine, and return 
to the shore of the Mediterranean, we cannot do more at 
this advanced stage of our progress than take a distant 
view of the landscape which stretches from the lake of 
Tiberias to the sources of the Jordan. The mountains 
that terminate the prospect are extremely magnificent, some 
of them being covered with perpetual -snow. The inter- 
vening country, too, is in many parts uncommonly fine, 
presenting luxuriant crops, thriving villages, and other 
tokens of security and comfort. The Jordan issues from 
Lake Hoole, or Julias, which in its turn is fed by so many 
streams, that it becomes very difficult to determine the true 
fountain of the sacred river. 

The only town of consequence between the ruins of Ca- 
pernaum and the alpine range of Hermon and Djibbel el 
Sheik is Saphet, already mentioned, being one of the four 
cities consecrated by the religious veneration of the He- 
brews. According to Burckhardt, it stands upon several 
low hills that divide it into quarters, the largest of which w 
occupied by Jews. The whole may contain six hundred 
houses, of which one hundred and fifty belong to the people 
just named, and nearly as many to the Christians. The 
summit of the principal eminence is crowned with an ancient 
castle, part of which is regarded by the descendants of 
Israel as being contemporary with their earliest kings. 

Saphet is still a sort of university for the education of 
the Jewish rabbis, of whom there are usually twenty or 
thirty resident, collected from different countries of Europe, 
Africa, and Asia. They have no fewer than seven syna- 
gogues. Their attachment to this place arises from various 
motives, and especially from the traditionary belief that the 
Messias is to reign here forty years before he assumes the 
government at Jerusalem. To the north of the hill on 
which the castle stands there are several wells, which, it is 
said, were dug by the patriarch Isaac, and became the 
cause of contention between his herdsmen and those of 
Gerar ; but, says Pococke, they have much mistaken the 
place, the Valley of Gerar being at a great distance on the 

were the tears which formerly excited the sympathy and roused the 
valour of the Crusaders. The sailors of our party caught the kindling 
eeal, and nothing more was necessary to incite in them a hostile dispo- 
sition towards every Saracen they might afterward encounter." 



NORTHWARD OF JERUSALEM. 



other side of Jerusalem. This town, which is only men- 
tioned in the book of Tobit as belonging to the tribe of 
Naphtali, became famous during the Crusades ; it was 
occupied also by a detachment of French troops during the 
invasion of the country by Bonaparte. 

It is worthy of notice, that when the celebrated chief 
now named retreated from before Acre, the tyrant Djezzaf 
Pasha, to avenge himself on the Franks, inflicted a severe 
punishment on the Jewish and Christian inhabitants of 
Saphet. It is said that he had resolved to massacre all the 
believers in Moses and Jesus Christ who might be found 
in any part of his dominions, and had actually sent orders 
to Nazareth and Jerusalem to accomplish his barbarous 
design. But Sir Sidney Smith, on being apprized of his 
intention, conveved to him the assurance, that if a single 
Christian head should fall, he would bombard Acre, and 
set it on fire. The interposition of the British admiral is 
still remembered with heartfelt gratitude by all the inhabit- 
ants, who looked upon him as their deliverer. " His word," 
says Burckhardt, " I have often heard both Turks and 
Christians exclaim, was like God's word, — it never failed." 

It is to no purpose that we endeavour to ascertain the 
position of Dan, the extreme point of the ancient Hebrew 
territory. Its proximity to the Fountains of Jordan might 
be supposed to prove a sufficient guide to the geographer 
in his local researches ; but, as has been already mentioned, 
the rivulets which contribute to form the main stream of 
this celebrated river are so numerous, and apparently so 
equally entitled to the honour of being accounted the prin* 
cipal source, that the precise situation of the temple where 
Jeroboam set up one of his golden calves is still open to 
conjecture. 

The road from Nazareth to Acre proceeds for some time 
over a barren, rocky tract of country, which Hasselquist 
informs us is a continuation of a species of territory pecu- 
liar to the same meridian, and stretching through several 
parallels of latitude. At length the traveller reaches Se- 
phouri, or Sepphoris, the Zippor of the Hebrews, and the 
Diocesarea of the Romans, once the chief town and bul- 
wark of Galilee. The remains of its fortifications exhibit 
one of the works of Herod, who, after its destruction by 
Varus, not only rebuilt and fortified it, but made it the 

X 



242 



DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY 



principal city of his tetrarchy. Its inhabitants often re- 
volted against the Romans, relying on the advantages for 
defence supplied by its natural position. It is mentioned 
in the Talmud as the seat of a Jewish university, and was 
long famous for the learning of its rabbis. Here also was 
held one of the five sanhedrims authorized by the spiritual 
governors of Palestine ; the others being established at 
Jerusalem, Jericho, Gadara, and Amathus. But its chief 
celebrity is connected with the tradition, that it was the 
residence of Joachim and Anna, the parents of the Virgin 
Mary. The house of St. Anne, observes Dr. Clarke, is the 
" commencement of that superstitious trumpery which for 
a Jong time has constituted the chief object of devotion and 
of pilgrimage in the Holy Land." No sooner was the spot 
discovered where the pious couple had lived than Constan- 
tino issued instructions to build upon it a magnificent 
church, the remains of which have been minutely described 
by the enterprising traveller to whom we have just, alluded. 

M We were conducted to the ruins of a stately Gothic 
edifice, which seems to have been one of the finest struc- 
tures in the Holy Land. Here we entered beneath lofty 
massive arches of stone. The roof of the building was of 
the same materials. The arches are placed at the inter- 
section of a Greek cross, and originally supported a dome 
or a tower ; their app»" ranee is highly picturesque, and 
they exhibit the grandeur of a noble style of architecture. 
Broken columns of grange and marble lie scattered among 
the walls, and these prove how richly it was decorated. 
We measured the capital of a pillar of the order commonly 
called Tuscan, which we found lying against one of gran- 
ite. The top of this formed a square of three feet. One 
aisle of this building is still entire ; at the eastern extremity 
a small temporary altar had been recently constructed by 
the piety of pilgrims ; it consisted of loose materials, and 
was of very modern date. Some fragments of the original 
decorations of the church had been gathered from the ruins 
and laid upon this altar ; and although they had remained 
open to every approach, even the Moslems had respected 
the votive offerings."* 

The date of this building is incidentally mentioned by 

* Travels, vol. iv. p. 141. 



NORTHWARD OF JERUSALEM. 



243 



Epiphanius, who relates that one Joseph, a native of Tibe- 
rias, was authorized by Constantine to erect a number of 
such edifices in the Holy Land, and that he fulfilled the in- 
tention of his sovereign at Tiberias, Capernaum, and Dio- 
cesarea. Reland, upon the authority of Theophanes, 
places its destruction in the year 339 of the Christian era, 
when the town was demolished on account of the seditious 
conduct of its inhabitants. 

It is perhaps worthy of notice, that Dr. Clarke examined 
some pictures which had been recently discovered among 
these ruins. One appears to represent the interview between 
our Saviour and the two disciples at Emmaus, when in the 
act of making himself known to them by the breaking of 
bread. Another exhibits the Virgin bearing in swaddling- 
clothes the infant Jesus ; and a third seems to illustrate 
the same subject in circumstances somewhat different. 
They are said to bear a great resemblance to those used in 
the churches of Russia, being executed upon a square piece 
of wood about half an inch in thickness. As they were 
not valued highly by the person into whose hands they 
had accidentally fallen, the Englishman bestowed a trifle 
on the ignorant Mohammedan, and " took them into safer 
custody."* 

The Vale of Zabulon divides the village just described 
from the ridge of hills which look down on Acre and the 
shores of the Great Sea. This delightful plain appears 
everywhere covered with spontaneous vegetation, flourish- 
ing in the wildest exuberance. The scenery is described 
by Dr. Clarke as not less beautiful than that of the rich 
valleys upon the south of the Crimea. It reminded him of 
the finest parts of Kent and Surrey. The prickly-pear, 
which grows to a prodigious size in the Holy Land, sprouts 
luxuriantly among the rocks, displaying its gaudy yellow 
blossoms, and promising abundance of a delicious cooling 
fruit. On either side of the road the ruins of fortified 
places exercise the ingenuity of the antiquarian traveller, 
who endeavours, through the mist of tradition and the per- 
plexing obscurity of modern names, to identify towns 
which make a figure in Jewish and Roman history. All 
remains of the strong city of Zabulon, called by Josephiij? 



* Travels, vol. iv.p. 148, 



g44 DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY 



the " city of men," have disappeared ; and its " admirable 
beauty," rivalling that of Tyre, Sidon, and Berytus, is now 
sought for in vain among Arab huts and scattered stones. 

The plain, which skirts the Mediterranean from Jaffa to 
Cape Blanco, presents many interesting memorials of He? 
brew antiquity and of European warfare. Every town 
along the coast has been the scene of contention between 
the armies of Christendom and those of Isiamism ; whence 
arises the motive which has determined us to incorporate 
the history of these cities with the narrative of the exploits 
whereon their fortunes have chiefly depended. Suffice it 
to mention as we go along, that the vicinity of Acre invites 
the attention of the naturalist, on account of certain facts 
recorded by Pliny, and repeated by subsequent historians. 
|t is said by this writer, that it was at the mouth of the 
river Belus the art of making glass was first discovered. A 
party of sailors, who had occasion to visit the shore in that 
neighbourhood, propped up the kettle in which they were 
about to cook their provisions with sand and pieces of 
nitre ; when to their surprise they found produced by the 
action of the fire on these ingredients, a new substance, 
which has added immensely to the comforts of life and to 
the progress of science. The sand of this remarkable 
stream continued for ages to supply, not only the manufac? 
tories of Sidon, but all other places, with materials for that 
beautiful production. Vessels from Italy were employed to 
yemQve it for the glass-houses of Venice and Genoa so late 
as the middle of the seventeenth century. 

There is another circumstance connected with the same 
river, which, in the mythological writings of antiquity, 
makes a still greater figure than the discovery just de» 
scribed, Lucian relates that the Belus, at certain seasons 
of the year, especially about the feast of Adonis, is of a 
bloody colour, — a fact which the heathens looked upon as 
proceeding from a kind of sympathy for the death of this 
favourite of Venus, who was killed by a wild boar in the 
mountains whence the stream takes its rise. " Something 
like this," says Maundrell, " we saw actually come to pass ; 
for the water was stained to a surprising redness, and, as 
we had observed in travelling, had discoloured the sea a 
great way into a reddish hue, occasioned doubtless by a sort 
jpf minium, or red earth, washed into the river by the vie- 



NORTHWARD OF JERUSALEM. 



245 



lence of the rain, and not by any stain from Adonis's 
blood."* 

The excellence of Carmel, which here rises into view, 
has in a great measure passed away. The curse denounced 
by Amos has fallen upon it, — The top of Carmel shall 
wither — for it is now chiefly remarkable as a mass of 
barren and desolate rocks. Its sides are indeed graced by 
some native cedars, and even the brambles are still inter- 
mingled with wild vines and olives, denoting its ancient 
fertility, or more careful cultivation ; but there are no longer 
any rich pastures to render it the " habitation of shep- 
herds," or to recall to the fancy the beauty of Carmel and 
of Sharon, and to justify the comparison of it to the glory 
of Libanus. It owes to its name and to its prominent 
situation on the coast, as a sentinel of the Holy Land, 
all the interest which can now he claimed for the mountain 
on which Ellas vindicated the vorship of Jehovah, and 
where thousands of holy Christians have spent their lives 
in meditation and prayer. 

The monastery which stands on the summit of the hill, 
near the spot where the prophet orr'ered up his sacrifice, was 
long the principal residence of r ,he Carmelite friars. It 
appears never to have been a fine building, and is now en- 
tirely abandoned. During the campaign of the French in 
Syria, it was made an hospital for their sick, for which it 
was well adapted by its healthy and retired situation. It 
has been since ravaged by the Turks, who have stripped 
its shrines and destroyed its roof; though there still re- 
mains, for the solace of devout visiters, a small stone altar 
in a grotto dedicated to Saint Elias, over which is a coarse 
painting representing the holy man leaning on a wheels 
with fire and other instruments of sacrifice at his side.f 

* Journey from Aleppo to Jerusalem, p. 35. 
f Buckingham, vol. i. p. 181. 

2£ % 



#46 



THE HISTORY OF PALESTINE 



CHAPTER VIII. 

The History of Palestine from the Fall of Jerusalem to 

the Present Time. 

JBtate of Judea after the Fall of Jerusalem — Revolt under Trajan — Barco- 
chab — Adrian repairs Jerusalem — Schools at Babylon and Tiberias — 
The Attempt of Julian to rebuild the Temple — Invasion of Chosroes 
— Sack of Jerusalem — Rise of lslamism — Wars of the Califs — First 
Crusade — Jerusalem delivered — Policy of Crusades — Victory at As- 
jcalon— Baldwin King— Second Crusade — Saladin — His Success at 
Tiberias— He recovers Jerusalem — The Third Crusade — Richard 
Cceur de Lion — Siege and Capture of Acre — Plans of Richard — Hi? 
Return to Europe— Death of Saladin— Fourth Crusade — Battle of 
Jaffa — Fifth Crusade — Fall of Constantinople — Sixth Crusade — Da- 
rnietta taken — Reverses — Frederick the Second made King of Jerusa- 
lem — Seventh Crusade — Christians admitted into the Holy City — In- 
road of Karismians — Eighth Crusade under Louis IX. — He takes 
Damietta — His Losses and Return to Europe — Ninth Crusade — Louis 
IX. and Edward I.— Death of Louis — Successes of Edward — -Treaty 
with Sultan — Final Discomfiture of the Franks in Palestine, and 
Loss of Acre — State of Palestine under the Turks — Increased Tole- 
ration — Bonaparte invades Syria — Siege of Acre and Defeat of French 
— Actual State of the Holy Land — Number, Condition, and Character 
pf the Jews. 

The destruction of Jerusalem, though it* put an end to 
the polity of the Hebrew nation as an independent people, 
did not entirely disperse the remains of their miserable 
tribes^ nor denude the Holy Land of its proper inhabitants. 
•The number of the slain was indeed immense, and the mul? 
titude of captives carried away by Titus glutted the slave? 
markets of the Roman empire ; but it is true, nevertheless, 
that many fair portions of Palestine were uninjured by the 
way, and continued to enjoy an enviable degree of pros- 
perity under the government of their conquerors. The 
towns on the coast generally submitted to the legions with- 
out incurring the chance of a battle or the horrors of a 
siege ; while the provinces beyond the Jordan, which formed 
the kingdom of Agrippa, maintained their allegiance to 
Rome throughout the whole period of the insurrection else- 
where so fatal, and especially to the inheritance, of Judah 
and of Benjamin. 



FROM THE FALL OF JERUSALEM. 247 



It has been already suggested that soon after the Romau 
army was withdrawn, many of the Jewish families, Christians 
as well as followers of the Mosaical Law, returned to their 
sacred capital, and sought a precarious dwelling among its 
ruins. To prevent the rebuilding of the city, Vespasian 
found it necessary to establish on Mount Zion a garrison 
of eight hundred men. The same emperor, it is related, 
jcommanded strict search to be made for all who claimed 
descent from the house of David, in order to cut off, if pos- 
sible, all hope of the restoration of that royal race, and more 
especially of the advent of the Messiah, the confidence in 
whose speedy coming still burned with feverish excitement 
in the heart of every faithful Israelite. A similar jealousy, 
w T hich dictated a similar inquisition, was continued in the 
subsequent reign, — a fact strongly illustrative of the spirit 
which prevailed at that period among the descendants of 
Abraham, and explanatory also of their successive revolts 
against the Roman power. 

Under the mild sway of Trajan, the Jews in Egypt, Cy- 
prus, and even in Mesopotamia, flew to arms, to avenge trie 
insults to which they had been subjected, or to realize the 
hopes that they have never ceased to cherish. After a war 
remarkable for the waste of blood with which it was ac- 
companied, the unhappy insurgents were everywhere sup- 
pressed ; having lost, according to their own confession, 
more than half a million of men in the field of battle, or 
the sack of towns. The skill and fortune of Adrian, who 
soon afterward occupied the imperial throne, were dis- 
played in the island of Cyprus, from which the Jews were 
expelled with tremendous slaughter, and prohibited from 
ever again touching its shores. 

To cheek the mutinous disposition, or to weaken the 
influence of the vanquished tribes, an edict was promul- 
gated by their Roman masters, forbidding circumcision, the 
reading of the Law, and the observance of the weekly Sab- 
bath. Still further to defeat their favourite schemes, and 
to blast all hopes of a restoration to civil power in Jerusa^ 
lem under their Messiah, it was resolved by the government 
at Rome to repair to a certain extent the city of the Jews, 
and to establish in it a regular colony of Greeks and Latins, 
At this crisis appeared the notorious Barcochab, whose 
frame, denoting the " son of a star," made him be instantly 



248 



THE HISTORY 07 PALESTINE 



hailed by a large majority of the nation as that predicted 
light which was to arise out of Jacob in the latter days. 
Recommended by Akiba, one of the most popular of the 
Rabbim, to the confidence of Israel, this impostor soon saw 
himself at the head of a powerful army ; amounting, say 
the Jewish annalists, to more than two hundred thousand 
men. In the absence of the legions now called to other 
parts of the East, he found little difficulty in taking pos- 
session of Jerusalem ; and before a competent force, under 
the renowned Julius Severus, could arrive in Palestine, the 
false Messias had seized fifty of the strongest castles, and a 
great number of open towns. 

The details of the sanguinary campaigns which followed 
are given by the vanquished Jews with more minuteness 
than probability. Severus, who had learned all the arts of 
desultory warfare when employed against the barbarians 
of Britain, used a similar policy on the banks of the Jordan ; 
choosing to cut off the supplies of the enemy, and attack 
their posts with overwhelming numbers, rather than en- 
counter their furious fanaticism in a general engagement. 
Bither, a strong city, and defended by Barcochab in person, 
was the last to yield to the Romans. At length it was 
taken by storm, at the expense of much human life on either 
side ; but as the leader of the rebellion was among the slain, 
the victors did not consider their success too dearly bought, 
as with the star whose light was extinguished in the car- 
nage of Bither the hope of Israel fell to the earth. Dio 
Cassius relates, that during this war no fewer than 580,000 
fell by the sword, besides those who perished by famine and 
disease. The whole of Judea was converted into a desert, 
— wolves and hyenas howled in the streets of the desolate 
cities, — and all the villages were consumed with fire. 

It was after these events that Adrian, to annihilate for 
ever all hopes of the restoration of the Jewish kingdom, 
accomplished his plan of founding a new city on the waste 
places of Jerusalem, to be peopled by a colony of foreigners. 
This town, as we have elsewhere observed, w r as called iElia 
Capitolina ; the former epithet alluding to iElius, the prae- 
nomen of the emperor, — the latter denoting that it was 
dedicated to Jupiter Capitolinus, the tutelar deity of Rome. 
An edict was issued, interdicting every Jew from entering 
ihe new city on pain of death, or even approaching so near 



FROM THE FALL OF JERUSALEM. 249 



it as to be able to contemplate its towers and tbe venerable 
heights on which it stood. The more effectually to keep 
them away, the image of a sow was placed over the gate 
which leads to Bethlehem. But the more peaceful Chris* 
tians, meanwhile, were permitted to establish themselves 
within the walls ; and ^lillia, it is well known, soon became 
the seat of a flourishing church and of a bishopric* 

From this period the history of the Holy Land is less 
connected with the Jews than with the policy of the dif- 
ferent governments by which their country has been occu- 
pied. More attached to their ancient faith than when it 
was established at Jerusalem, we find them, both in the East 
and West, labouring with the most indefatigable zeal to 
revive its principles and extend its authority. Hence their 
celebrated schools at Babylon and Tiberias,-r-the source of 
all legislation, and the seat of judgment in all cases of 
doubtful opinion. Hence, too, those mixed titles, so long 
recognised in their tribes, the Patriarch of Tiberias and the 
Prince of the Captivity,-r-appointments which, during a long 
period, constituted a bond of union, partly spiritual and 
partly political, among allthe descendants of Jacob. The 
numerous remains of that people, though still excluded from 
the precincts of Jerusalem, were nevertheless permitted to 
form and to maintain considerable establishments both in 
Italy and in the provinces ; to acquire the freedom of Rome ; 
to enjoy municipal honours ; and to obtain, at the same 
time, an exemption from the burdensome and expensive 
offices of society. The moderation or the contempt of the 
Romans gave a legal sanction to the form of ecclesiastical 
police which was instituted by the vanquished sect. The 
Patriarch was empowered to appoint his subordinate minis- 
ters, to exercise a domestic jurisdiction, and to receive 
from his brethren an annual contribution. New synagogues 
were frequently erected in the principal cities of the empire ; 
and the Sabbaths, the fasts, and the festivals, which were 
either commanded by the Mosaic Law or enjoined by the 
traditions of the Rabbim, were celebrated in the most solemn 
and public manner. They were, in like manner, restored 
to the privilege of circumcising their children, on the easy 
condition that they should never confer on any foreign prose? 



* History of the Jews, vol. Hi. 



250 THE HISTORY OF PALESTINE 



lyte the distinguishing mark of the Hebrew race. Such 
gentle treatment insensibly assuaged the stern temper of 
the Jews. Awakened from their dream of prophecy and 
conquest, they assumed the behaviour of peaceable and 
industrious subjects. Their hatred of mankind, instead of 
flaming out in acts of blood and violence, evaporated in less 
dangerous gratifications. They embraced every oppor- 
tunity of overreaching the idolaters in trade ; and they pro- 
nounced secret and ambiguous imprecations against the 
haughty kingdom of Edom, the name under which they 
were pleased to denounce the Roman empire.* 

The glories which were shed upon Palestine by the mu- 
nificent zeal of Constantine and his mother have already 
been repeatedly mentioned. The splendid buildings which 
arose in every part of the Holy Land announced the triumph 
of the new faith in the country where it had its origin ; ex- 
citing at once the pride of the Christian, and the jealousy, 
resentment, and despair of the Jew. The government of 
Constantius was not more favourable to the children of 
Israel ; nor was it till the accession of Julian that they were 
encouraged to look for revenge upon their enemies, if not 
for protection to their despised countrymen. The edict to 
rebuild the Temple on Mount Moriah, and to establish once 
more at Jerusalem the worship enjoined by Moses, called 
forth their utmost exertions in behalf of a prince who at 
least abandoned a rival religion, destined, as they appre- 
hended, to supplant their own more ancient ritual. 

The issue of this attempt to reinstate the ceremonies of 
the Jewish Law in the capital of Palestine is known to 
every reader. The workmen employed in digging the foun- 
dation of the new Temple were terrified by flames of fire 
darting forth from the ground, and accompanied with the 
most frightful explosions. No inducement could prevail on 
them to persevere in labours which appeared to excite the 
anger of Heaven. The enterprise was relinquished, as at 
once hopeless and impious ; and there is no doubt that, 
whatever additions may have been made to the circum- 
stances by ignorance and a too easy belief, the views of 
Julian were frustrated by the occurrence of some very ex- 
traordinary event, which still finds a place even in Roman 



* Decline and Fall, voL ii. p. 385. 



FROM THE FALL OF JERUSALEM 251 



history. The skeptic may smile when he reads in the pages 
of a Christian Father, that flakes of fire which assumed the 
form of a cross settled on the dresses of the artisans and 
spectators ; that a horseman was seen careering amid the 
flames ; and that, when the afTrio-hted labourers fled to a 
neighbouring church, its doors, fastened by some preter- 
natural force within, refused to admit them into the sacred 
building. In such details the imagination is consulted 
more than the reason ; and it cannot be denied that certain 
authors, who wrote long after the reign of Julian, have 
admitted traditionary anecdotes into the narrative of a grave 
event. It is deserving of notice, however, that the mark 
of the cross, said to have been impressed upon the by- 
standers, is not the most incredible of the circumstances 
recorded. Many instances have been known of persons 
touched by the electric fluid, whose bodies exhibited similar 
traces of its operation, — straight lines cutting one another 
at right angles, — and hence that part of the description 
which appears the least entitled to belief will be found to 
be strictly within the limits of nature.* 

The policy of the emperors continued to depress the Jews 
in Palestine, while it granted to them the enjoyment of con- 
siderable privileges in all the other provinces where their 
presence and peculiar views were less hazardous to the 
public peace. During the same period, the Christian church 
possessed the countenance of the civil power, and gradu- 
ally extended its doctrines into Armenia, as well as into the 
more important region of the Lower Mesopotamia. It was 
not till the beginning of the seventh century that the course 
of events was materially disturbed by an invasion of the 
Persians, under Chosroes, who had resolved to humble the 
government of Constantinople, and to check its pretensions 
in the East. The part of the army appointed to serve 
against Palestine was intrusted to Carnsia, an experienced 
general, who invited the Jews to join his standard. Thrs 
people, ever ready to aid the cause of revolt, assembled, it 
is said, to the number of 24,000 men, and made prepara- 
tions for an attack on Jerusalem. A sanguinary warfare 

* The reader who wishes to examine the evidence for the miraculous 
nature of the interruption sustained by the agents of Julian will find 
an ample discussion in the pages of Basnage, Lardner, Warburton, Gib- 
bon, and of the Author of the History of the Jews. 



252 THE HISTORY OF PALESTINE 

had ensued, even before the arrival of their allies from be- 
3 7 ond the Euphrates ; and both sides, accordingly, were ex- 
asperated to the highest degree of fury, and importuning 
Heaven to hasteti the moment of revenge. The Christians 
within the walls massacred their enemies in cold blood, while 
the assailants without carried destruction to every point 
which their arms could reach. At length, the advance of 
the Persians secured to the Jews the hour of triumph and 
retaliation, when they fully quenched their thirst for ven- 
geance in the blood of the Nazarenes. The victors are said 
to have sold the miserable captives for money. But the 
rage of the Jews was stronger than their avarice ; for not 
only did they not scruple to sacrifice their treasures in the 
purchase of these devoted bondsmen at a lavish price, but 
they put to death without remorse all whom they bought.- 
It was rumoured that no fewer than 90,000 Christians 
perished. Every church was demolished, including that of 
the Holy Sepulchre, — the greatest object of Jewish hatred* 
The stately building of Helena and Constantine was aban- 
doned to the flames, and the devout offerings of three hun- 
dred years were rifled in one sacrilegious day. 

But the arms of Persia did not long support the perse- 
cuting spirit of the Jews. The Emperor Heraclius, who had 
spent some inglorious years on the throne, was alarmed 
into activity by the progress of the enemy, who had threat- 
ened even the walls of Constantinople itself. The disci- 
pline of ancient Rome, which was not yet quite extinct 
among the legionary soldiers, maintained its wonted supe* 
riority over the less martial troops of Chosroes, and recov- 
ered in the course of a few campaigns all the provinces that 
the invaders had overrun. Heraclius visited Jerusalem as 
a pilgrim, when the wood of the true cross, which, it was 
rumoured, had been Carried away to Persia, was reinstated 
with due solemnity. Several Christian churches, too, were 
restored to their former magnificence ; and the law of Adrian 
Was again put in force, which prohibited the Jews from 
approaching within three miles of the holy city.* 

Palestine continued to acknowledge the power of the 
emperor until the rise of Islamism changed the face of West- 
em Asia. The armies of the califs, which wrested from 



* History of the Jews, vol. iii, 



FROM THE FALL OF JERUSALEM* 253 



Persia the dominion of the surrounding nations, conquered 
in succession the provinces of Arabia, Syria, and Egypt, 
and at length planted the crescent on the walls of Jeru- 
salem. The victories of Omar in 636 decided the fate of 8 
the venerable city, and laid the foundations of a mosque on 
the sacred hill where the Temple of Solomon had stood* 
This conqueror was assassinated at Jerusalem in 643 ; after 
which, the establishment of several califates in Arabia and 
Syria, the fall of the Ommiades, and the elevation of the 
Abassides involved Judea in trouble for more than two hun- 
dred years. In 868, Achmet, a Turk, who from being gov- 
ernor had made himself sovereign of Egypt, conquered the 
capital of Palestine ; but his son having been defeated by 
the califs of Bagdad, the holy city again returned under 
their dominion in the year 905 of our era. Mohammed 
Ikschid, another Turk, about thirty years after, having in his 
turn seized the throne of the Pharaohs, carried his arms into 
Palestine, and reduced the capital. The Fatimites, again, 
issuing from the sands of Cyrene, expelled the Ikschidites 
from Egypt in 968, and conquered several towns in Judea. 
Ortok, towards the end of the tenth century, made himself 
master of the holy city, whence his children were for a time 
driven out by Mostali, Calif of Egypt. In 1076, Mele- 
schah, the third of the Turkish race, took Jerusalem, and 
ravaged the whole country. The Ortokides, who, as we 
have just related, were dispossessed by Mostali, returned 
thither, and maintained themselves in it against Redouan, 
Prince of Aleppo. They were expelled once more by the 
Fatimites, who were masters of the place when the cru- 
saders first appeared on the confines of Syria. 

Several generations passed away, during which the affairs 
of the Holy Land created no interest in Europe, and when 
Christians and Jews, who could hardly obtain the most 
limited toleration from their Mohammedan masters, sought 
an asylum among the states of Europe. In the Travels of 
Benjamin of Tudela are to be found some incidental notices 
which leave no doubt as to the fact that his countrymen, 
unable to bear the persecution directed against them, had 
gradually abandoned the birthplace of their fathers. Jeru- 
salem, in the twelfth century, did not contain more than two 
hundred descendants of Abraham, poor, depressed, and 
calumniated ; while at Tiberias, the seat of learning and of 

y 



254 



THE HISTORY OF PALESTINE 



their sovereign patriarch, the number did not exceed fifty 
the victims of suspicion and jealousy, not less on the part 
of the Christians than of the Moslem, who had already begun 
to contend with each other for the sepulchre of Christ. 

It has often been observed, that pilgrimage to the holy 
places of Palestine was from a very early period regarded 
as at once a wholesome discipline and an acceptable reve- 
rence on the part of Christian w-orshippers. The Arabian 
califs were, on various accounts, inclined to favour the re- 
sort of Europeans to these shrines of their faith. They 
saw in it a fruitful source of revenue ; while, as the progeny 
of Abraham, they were not disposed to take offence at the 
veneration lavished upon the prophetic son of David, whose 
tomb the fortune of war had placed in their hands. But 
the Seljukian Turks, those irreclaimable barbarians, who had 
no sympathy with the believers in Christ, laid on them such 
burdens and vexatious restraints as were altogether intole- 
rable. The cries of the unhappy pilgrims had long re- 
sounded throughout all Christendom ; and the indignation 
which was universally felt against the bigoted Mussulmans 
was inflamed in no slight degree by the eloquence of Peter 
the Hermit, who had witnessed in foreign lands the afflic- 
tions of his brethren. Yielding to the impulse of the age, 
Pope Urban the Second convoked a general council at Cler- 
mont, in Auvergne, to whom he addressed an oration well 
fitted to confirm the enthusiasm which he found already 
kindled. He encouraged them to attack the enemies of 
God, and in that holy warfare to earn the reward of eternal 
life promised to all the faithful servants of the Redeemer ; 
suggesting, that as a mark of their profession as well as 
of their Saviour's love, they should wear red crosses on their 
garments when fighting the battles of Christianity. 

The warlike spirit of the time was roused by every motive 
which can touch the heart of man in a rude state of society, 
— the love of glory, religion, revenge, and enterprise. Many 
of the most illustrious princes of the Christian world took 
up the cross, and were followed by persons of both sexes, 
and of all ages, classes, and professions. A vast army 
poured in from every country, under the most distinguished 
leaders, of whom the principal were, Godfrey, Duke of Bra- 
bant and Bouillon ; Robert of France, the brother of King 
Philip ; and Robert, Duke of Normandy, the son of tha 



FROM THE FALL OF JERUSALEM. 255 



English monarch. Bohemond, too, the chief of the Nor- 
mans of Apulia, and Raymond, Count of Toulouse, led many 
renowned warriors to Syria. 

The tumultuary bands who marched under the standard 
of the Hermit suffered hardships altogether unknown to 
modern war. In passing through the countries watered by 
the Danube, and the hilly countries which lie between that 
river and the Mediterranean, more than half their number 
fell victims to disease, famine, and the rage of the barbarians 
whose lands they infested. But, in spite of these misfor- 
tunes, Bohemond, one of the leaders, laid siege to Antioch 
in 1097 ; and on the 15th July, two years after, the ancient 
and holy city of Jerusalem was taken by assault, with a pro- 
digious slaughter of the garrison. Ten thousand Moham- 
medans were slain on the site of the Temple of Solomon ; 
a greater number was thrown from the tops of houses ; and 
a fearful carnage was committed after all resistance had 
ceased. 

The siege had lasted two months with various success, 
and a considerable loss of life on either side ; and hence 
arose the savage ferocity which disgraced, on the part of 
the victors, the last scene of this miserable tragedy. The 
assailants having endured much from drought, as well as 
from the sword of the enemy, betook themselves to pious 
exercises in order to avert the anger of Heaven. The sol- 
diers, completely armed, made a holy procession round the 
, walls. The clergy, with naked feet, and bearing images of 
the cross, led them in the sacred way. Cries of Deus id 
vultj — God commands it, — rent the air ; and the people 
marehed to the melody of hymns and psalms, and not to the 
sound of drums and trumpets. On Mount Olivet and Mount 
Zion they prayed for assistance in the approaching conflict. 
The Saracens mocked these expressions of religious feeling, 
by throwing mud upon crucifixes which they raised for the 
purpose ; but these insults had only the effect of producing 
louder shouts of sacred joy from the Christians. The next 
morning every thing was prepared for battle ; and there 
was no one who was not ready either to die for Christ, or 
restore his city to liberty. The night was spent in watch- 
ing and alarm by both armies. At dawn of day the conflict 
began which was to determine the fate of the great European 
expedition, and when noon arrived the issue was still in su*» 



256 



THE HISTORY OF PALESTINE 



pense, or seemed rather to incline in favour of the Moham- 
medans. The cause of the Western World appeared to 
totter on the brink of destruction, and the most valiant 
amonp* the crusaders allowed themselves to fear that Heaven 
had deserted its own cause and people.* 

At the moment when all was considered lost, a knight 
was seen on Mount Olivet, waving his glittering shield as 
a sign to the soldiers that they should rally and return to 
the charge. Godfrey and Eustace cried aloud to the army, 
that St. George was come to their succour. The spirit of 
enthusiasm instantly revived, fatigue and pain were no 
longer felt, the princes led their columns to the breach, and 
even the women insisted upon sharing the honours of the 
fight. In the space of an hour the barbacan was broken 
down, and Godfrey's tower rested against the inner wall, 
Exchanging the duties of a general for those of a soldier, 
the Duke of Lorraine fought with his bow : " The Lord 
guided his hand, and all his arrows pierced the enemy 
through and through." Near him were Eustace and Bald* 
win, " like two lions beside another lion." At three o'clock, 
the hour when the Saviour of the world was crucified, a 
soldier, named Letoldus of Tournay, leaped upon the fortifi- 
cations ; his brother, Engelbert, followed, and Godfrey was 

* u When the first light brought news of a morning, they on afresh ; 
because they had intercepted a letter tied to the leg of a dove, wherein 
the Persian emperor promised present succours to the besieged. The 
Turks cased the outside of their walls with bags of chaff, straw, and 
such like pliable matter, which conquered the engines of the Christians 
by yielding unto them. As for one sturdy engine, whose force would 
not be tamed, they brought two old witches on the walls to enchant it; 
but the spirit thereof was too strong for their spells, so that both of 
them were miserably slain in the place. 

M We must not think that the world was at a loss for war tools before 
the brood of guns was hatched : it had the battering-ramme, first found 
out by Epeus at the taking of Troy ; the balisia to discharge great stones, 
invented by the Phenicians ; the catapulta, being a sling of mighty 
strength, whereof the Syrians were authors ; and perchance King Uzziart 
first made it, for we find him very dexterous and happy in devising such 
things. And although these bear-whelps were but rude and unshaped 
at the first, yet art did lick them afterward, and they got more teeth 
and sharper nails by degrees ; so that every age set them forth in a new 
edition, corrected and amended. But these and many more voluminous 
engines are now virtually epitomized in the cannon. And though some 
say that the finding of guns hath been the losing of many men's lives, 
yet it will appear that battles now are fought with more expedition, and 
Victory standeth not so long a neuter, before she express herself on one 
pide ox other."— Ftdltfs Holy TVarre, p. 41. 



FROM THE FALL OF JERUSALEM. 257 



the third Christian who stood as a conqueror upon the ram- 
parts of Jerusalem. The glorious ensign of the Cross 
streamed from the walls, and the whole city was soon at the 
mercy of the besiegers. The Mussulmans fought for a 
while, then fled to their temples, and submitted their necks 
to the sword. The victors, in a document which is still 
preserved, boasted, that in the mosque of Omar, whither 
they pursued the fugitives, they rode in the blood of Sara* 
cens up to the knees of their horses. 

After the slaughter had terminated, and the soldiers had 
soothed their minds by certain acts of devotion, the expe- 
diency of forming a regular government became manifest to 
all parties. Godfrey, a hero whose name cannot be too 
highly honoured, was chosen by the unanimous suffrages 
of rival warriors to be the first Christian king of Jerusalem. 
Bohemond, the son of Robert Guiseard, reigned at Antioch ; 
Baldwin, the brother of Godfrey, at Edessa ; and the Count 
of Toulouse, at Tripoli. The dominion of the crusaders 
extended from the confines of Egypt to the Euphrates on 
the east, and to the acclivities of Mount Taurus on the 
north ; and several of their principalities lasted nearly two 
hundred years. 

Many attempts have been made to defend the policy and 
excuse the enormities of the Christian warriors in their en- 
terpr't e against the Moslem occupants of the Holy Land. 
These two points ought to be more carefully distinguished 
than they usually are, whether in the pages of friends or ene- 
mies ; for while the general expediency of a combination of 
the Christian powtrs may be supported on good grounds, 
the cruelty of some of their measures deserves the severest 
censure. It is remarked by Mr. Mills, that the massacre 
of the Saracens on the capture of the holy city did not pro- 
ceed alone from the inflamed passions of victorious soldiers, 
but from remorseless fanaticism. Benevolence to Turks, 
Jews, infidels, and heretics made no part of Christian ethics 
in those rude times ; and as the Moslem in their consciences 
believed it was the will of Heaven that the religion of their 
prophet should be propagated by the sword, so their antago* 
nists laboured under the mental delusion that they them- 
selves were the ministers of God's wrath on a disobedient 
and stiff-necked people. The Latins, on the day after the 
victory, massacred three hundred men, to whom Tancr.e.4 



258 THE HISTORY OF PALESTINE 



and Gaston de Beam had promised protection, and even 
given a standard as a pledge of safety. But every engage- 
ment was broken, in consequence of the resolution that no 
pity should be shown to the Mohammedans,— an expedient 
which was justified by the opinion now prevalent among 
the invaders, that in conjunction with the Saracens of 
Egypt they might again reduce the city and recover all the 
ground they had lost. It was for this reason that the in- 
habitants of Jerusalem, armed and unarmed, were dragged 
forth into the public squares, and slain like cattle. Women 
with children at the breast, boys, and even girls were 
slaughtered indiscriminately, and in such numbers that the 
streets were covered with dead bodies and mangled limbs. 
No heart melted into compassion or expanded into benevo- 
lence. The stones of the city were ordered to be washed, 
and the melancholy task was performed by some Moslem 
slaves. The Count of Toulouse, whose avarice prevailed 
over his superstition, was loudly condemned for accepting a 
ransom from a few of the devoted prisoners, whom he sent 
in safety to Ascalon. So unrelenting, in short, was the 
passion of revenge among the crusaders, that they set fire to 
the synagogues of the Jews, many of whom perished in the 
flames.* 

Such conduct merits the deepest execration that moralist 
or statesman may be pleased to pour upon it. We are 
nevertheless convinced that, in the peculiar circumstances 
of the Christian world when Peter the Hermit called its 
chiefs to arms, a united war against the Mohammedan 
states of Syria was dictated by the soundest political wis- 
dom. The subjects of Omar had already conquered an 
establishment in Sicily and Spain, and attempted the sub- 
jugation of France, Their views were directed towards 
universal dominion in the West, as well as in the East ; 
they hoped to witness the triumph of the crescent in Europe 
not less certainly than in Asia, and to be able to impose a 
tribute on the worshippers of Christ, or compel them to re* 

* Fuller remarks, that " this second massacre was no slip of an ex- 
temporary passion, but a studied and premeditated act. Besides, the 
execution was merciless upon sucking children whose not speaking 
spake for them ; and on women whose weakness is a shield to defend 
them against a valiant man. To conclude, severity, hot in the fourth der 
gree, is little better than poison, and becometh cruelty itself; and this 
eet seemeth to be of the same nature."— Holy Warre, p. 41« 



FROM THE FALL OF JERUSALEM. 259 



linquish their creed on the remotest shores of the Atlantic. 
Those, therefore, who perceive in the Crusades nothing but 
a mob of armed pilgrims running to rescue a tomb in Pales- 
tine must take a very limited view of history. The point 
in question was not merely the recovery of that sacred build- 
ing from the hands of infidels, but rather to decide which 
of the two religions, the Christian or Mohammedan, should 
predominate in the world ; the one hostile to civilization, 
and only favourable to ignorance, despotism, and slavery ; 
the other friendly to improvement, learning, and freedom in 
all ranks and conditions of society. 

It is asserted by Chateaubriand, that whoever reads the 
address of Pope Urban to the council of Clermont must be 
convinced that the leaders in these military enterprises were 
not actuated by the petty views which have been ascribed 
to them ; but, on the contrary, that they aspired to save 
the Western World from a new inundation of barbarians. 
The spirit of Islamism is conquest and persecution ; the 
gospel, on the contrary, inculcates only toleration and 
peace. The Christians, moreover, had endured for several 
centuries all the oppressions which the fanaticism of the 
Saracens impelled them to exercise. They had merely en* 
deavoured to interest Charlemagne in their favour ; for nei* 
ther the conquest of Spain, the invasion of France, the pil* 
lage of Greece and the Two Sicilies, nor the entire subjuga* 
tion of Africa, could for nearly six hundred years rouse the 
Christians to arms. If at last the cries of numberless vie* 
tims slaughtered in the East, if the progress of the barba* 
rians, who had already reached the gates of Constantinople, 
awakened Christendom, and impelled it to rise in its own 
defence, who can say that the cause of the Holy Wars was 
unjust 1 Contemplate Greece, if you would know the fate 
of a people subjected to the Mussulman yoke. Would those 
who at this day so loudly exult in the progress of knowledge 
wish to live under a religion that burned the Alexandrian 
library, which makes a merit of trampling mankind under 
foot, and holding literature and the arts in sovereign con- 
tempt 1 The Crusades, by weakening the Moslem hordes 
in the very centre of Asia, prevented Europe from falling a 
prey to the Turks and Arabs ; they did more, they saved her 
from revolutions at home, with which she was threatened ; 
they suspended intestine wars by which she was ever an^ 



260 THE HISTORY OF PALESTINE 



anon desolated ; and, finally, they opened an outlet to that 
excess of population which sooner or later occasions the 
ruin of nations.* 

The administration of Godfrey was gentle and prosper- 
ous. He gained a decisive victory over the Vizier of 
Egypt, who had encamped on the plains of Ascalon with 
the view of assisting his Syrian allies to recover Jerusalem 
from the hands of the Christians. According to the spirit 
of the age, he joined to the qualities of a brave soldier the 
profession of an ardent faith and the utmost reverence for 
the authority of the church. He refused a precious diadem 
offered to him by his companions in arms, declaring that he 
would never wear a crown of gold in the city where the 
Saviour of the world had worn a crown of thorns. In the 
same feeling he was disposed to reject the title of king and 
to exercise his office under the name of Defender and 
Baron of the Holy Sepulchre. 

Upon the demise of this distinguished commander, which 
is supposed to have taken place at Jaffa, the government 
devolved upon his brother Baldwin, who sustained its glory 
and interests with a steady hand. About the year 11 18, he 
was succeeded on his throne by his nephew, who bore the 
same name, and who, although sometimes unfortunate, did 
not tarnish the honour of his family. Melisandra, his 
eldest daughter, married Foulques of Anjou, and conveyed 
the kingdom of Jerusalem into the hand of her husband, 
who enjoyed it ten or twelve years, when he lost his life 
by a fall from a horse. His son, Baldwin the Third, a 
youth of a rash temper and destitute of experience, assumed 
the sceptre of Jerusalem, which he held twenty years, — a 
period rendered remarkable by the events of the second 
Crusade, and the rise of various orders of knighthood, — * 
the Hospitallers, Templars, and Cavaliers. 

The news from Palestine, that certain reverses had been 
sustained by the Christians, acted so powerfully on the pious 
spirit of St. Bernard and the troubled conscience of Louis 

* On this interesting subject we refer to the " Itineraire" of Chateau- 
briand, and his " Genie dii Christianisme ;" the History of England by 
Sir James Mackintosh, volume first ; and to Mills's History of the Cru- 
sades, volume first, chapter sixth. We may add Dr. Robertson's " His- 
torical Disquisition concerning the Knowledge which the Ancients had 
of India." 



FROM THE FALL OF JERUSALEM. 261 



the Seventh, the king of France, as to suggest a second 
confederation among European princes for the security of 
the Holy Land. This new apostle of a sacred war was, 
on many accounts, greatly superior to Peter the Hermit. 
He was a man of noble birth ; possessed learning sufficient 
to rival the attainments of Abelard, his contemporary ; and 
could speak with a degree of eloquence to which no orator 
of his age had the boldness to aspire. The French mon- 
arch, who had assembled around him a powerful and most 
splendid army, was joined by the Emperor of Germany, 
Conrade the Third, whose thousands equalled those of his 
warlike brother, and whose zeal in the cause of Christendom 
was not less active. 

But the experience of their predecessors, fifty years before, 
was lost upon these fearless soldiers of the Cross. Without 
suitable preparation, they encountered the dangers of a long 
march through hostile countries and sickly climates, the 
effects of which appeared in the rapid diminution of their 
numbers, in mutual invectives, and in increasing despair. 
Not more than a tenth part of the Germans reached the 
coast of Syria. The French, who had suffered less than 
their allies, were sooner ready to take the field against the 
Saracens ; and after proving their arms in a few unim- 
portant skirmishes, they resolved to lay siege to Damascus 
in concert with the battalions of Conrade, But the evil 
genius of intrigue defeated their designs. After a fruitless 
display of a force more than sufficient to have reduced the 
place, the Christian chiefs withdrew from before the ram- 
parts of the Syrian capital, and fell back upon Jerusalem 
xn sorrow and shame. Conrade soon returned to Europe 
with the shattered remains of his gallant host ; and about 
a year afterward his example was imitated by the French 
king and the greater number of his generals, who were dis* 
gusted with the narrow policy on which the war had been 
conducted. 

Baldwin the Third, dying without male issue, transmitted 
the precarious throne of Jerusalem to his brother Amaury, 
or Almeric ; who, after a reign of eleven years, was suc- 
ceeded by his son, Baldwin the Fourth. The young sove* 
reign, being incapable of the duties of government, passed 
his minority under the wise counsels of Raymond, Count 
of Tripoli, who endeavoured to sustain the weight of kingly 



262 



THE HISTORY OF PALESTINE 



power in the midst of very formidable enemies. The name 
of Noureddin was Ions: terrible to the Christians of Pales- 
tine, who had gradually lost their warlike virtues ; but they 
were now about to encounter a still more able, and much 
more celebrated antagonist, in the person of Saladin, the 
hero of the Crescent, and one of the most distinguished 
leaders of that very romantic age. 

Baldwin had given his sister Sybilla, widow of William, 
surnamed Longue-Epee, or the Long-sword, in marriage to 
Guy of Lusignan. The grandees of the kingdom, dissatis- 
fied with the choice, divided into parties. The king, dying 
in 1184, left for his heir Baldwin the Fifth, the son of Sy- 
billa and William just mentioned, a child not more than 
eight years of age, and who soon afterward sunk under a 
constitutional distemper. His mother caused the crown to 
be conferred on her husband, the ambitious Guy, — a mea- 
sure whieh did not allay the jealousy of the nobles who had 
opposed their union. An alarming dissension prevailed 
among the barons, some of whom refused to take the oath 
of allegiance to the new sovereign, and even offered the 
diadem to Humphrey de Thoron. But the intrigues of 
Sybilla and the terror of Saladin prevented an open rupture, 
while events of a more important nature were about to 
occupy the attention of either party. 

The sultan had received from several of the Christian 
warriors just ground of offence, and failing to obtain 
redress from the feeble government of Jerusalem, he took 
the field in order to chastise with his own hand the more 
guilty of the aggressors. He encamped near the Lake of 
Tiberias, where Guy, listening to counsellors who saw not 
the danger of placing the fortunes of the kingdom on the 
issue of a single battle, resolved to attack him. For a whole 
day the engagement was in suspense, and at night the 
Latins retired to some rocks in the neighbourhood, hoping 
that they might find a little water to quench their thirst. 
At the approach of dawn the two armies stood for a while 
gazing upon each other, as if conscious that the fate of the 
Moslem and the Christian worlds was in their hands. But 
no sooner did the sun appear than the Crusaders raised their 
war-cry, and the Turks sounded their trumpets and atabals, 
— a mutual challenge to renew the sanguinary conflict. The 
bishops and clergy ran through the ranks cheering the sol- 



FROM THE FALL OF JERUSALEM. 263 



cliers of the church. A fragment of the true cross, in- 
trusted to the knights of the Holy Sepulchre, was placed 
on a hillock, around which the broken squadrons repeatedly 
rallied, and recovered strength for the combat whereon the 
interests of their faith were suspended. But the Crescent, 
supported by more numerous and stronger hands, triumphed 
on the plain of Tiberias. The Christians were defeated 
with great loss ; the king, the Master of the Templars, and 
the Marquis of Montferrat were taken prisoners, and the 
piece of holy wood, in which they had put their trust, was 
snatched from the grasp of the Bishop of Acre. 

This victory placed the greater part of Palestine in the 
power of Saiadin, who, upon the whole, used his success 
with moderation and clemency. The fugitives from every 
quarter fled to Jerusalem, hoping to escape in that asylum 
the swords and fetters of the Turks. One hundred thou* 
sand persons are said to have been crowded within the 
walls ; but so few were the soldiers, and so feeble was the 
government of the queen, that the holy city presented no 
serious obstacle to the progress of the Moslem arms. 
Saiadin declared his unwillingness to stain with human 
blood a place which even the followers of the Prophet held 
in reverence, as having been sanctified by the presence of 
many inspired individuals. He therefore promised to the 
people, on condition that they would quietly surrender the 
city, a supply of money, and lands in the most fertile pro- 
vinces of Syria. 

This offer was rejected, as implying a sacrilegious con- 
tract to yield into the hands of infidels the sacred spot 
where the Saviour of mankind had died. He therefore 
swore that he would enter their streets sword in hand, and 
retaliate upon them the dreadful carnage which the Franks 
had committed in the days of Godfrey. Two weeks were 
spent in almost incessant fighting, during which the advan- 
tage was generally on the side of the assailants. Finding 
resistance vain, the besieged at length appealed to the 
clemency of the conqueror. It was stipulated that the 
military and the nobles should be escorted to Tyre, and 
that the inhabitants should become slaves, if not ransomed 
at certain rates fixed by Saiadin. Thus, to* use the words 
of the historian, " after four days had been consumed by 
the miserable inhabitants, in weeping over and embracing 



264 THE HISTORY OF PALESTINE 



the Holy Sepulchre and other sacred places, the Latins left 
the city and passed through the enemy's camp. Children 
of all ages clung round their mothers, and the strength of 
the fathers was used in bearing away some little part of 
their household furniture. In solemn procession, the clergy, 
the queen, and her retinue of ladies followed. Saladin 
advanced to meet them, and his heart melted with compas- 
sion when he saw them approach in the attitude of sup- 
pliants." The softened warrior uttered some expressions 
of pity ; and the women, encouraged by his tenderness, 
declared, that by pronouncing one word he might remove 
their distress. " Our fortunes and possessions," said they, 
" you may freely enjoy ; but restore to us our fathers, our 
husbands, and our brothers. With these dear objects we 
cannot be entirely miserable. They will take care of us ; 
and that God whom we reverence, and who provides for the 
birds of the air, will not forget our children." Saladin was 
a barbarian in nothing but the name. With the most 
courteous generosity, he released all the prisoners whom the 
women requested, *md loaded them with presents. Nor 
was this action, »*o worthy of a gentle and chivalrous 
knight, the consequence of a merely transient feeling of 
humanity ; for wSmii he had entered the city of Jerusalem, 
and heard of the tencter care with which the military friars 
of St. John treated their sick countrymen, he allowed ten 
of their order to remain m the hospital till they could fully 
complete their work of cltirity.* 

The Mohammedans, being once more in possession of the 
holy walls, took down the great cross from the Church of 
the Sepulchre, and soiled it with the mire of the streets. 
They also melted the bells which had summoned the Chris- 
tians to devotion, and at the same time purified the Mosque 
of Omar by a copious sprinkling of rose-water. Ascalon, 
Laodicea, Gabala, Sidon, Nazareth, and Bethlehem opened 
their gates to the victorious Saladin, who, indeed, found no 
town of consequent nble to resist his arms except Tyre 
garrisoned by a body of excellent soldiers under the gallan 
Conrade. All the inhabitants took arms, and even th 
women shot arrows from the walls, or assisted in strength- 
ening the fortifications. The Saracens cast immense stones 

* Mills's History of the Crusades, vol. ii. p. 48. 



FROM THE FALL OF JERUSALEM. 265 



into the place, and attacked it with all the other means in 
their power ; but the spirit of freedom triumphed over the 
thirst of revenge, and the conqueror of Tiberias was finally 
compelled to relinquish the siege. 

The intelligence that Jerusalem had fallen under the do- 
minion of the unbelievers created in all parts of Europe a 
profound sensation of grief and disappointment. The 
clergy, as on former occasions, preached to all classes the 
duty and honour of assuming the Cross, and even of dying 
in the service of the Redeemer, should the sacrifice of life 
be required at their hands. But the enthusiasm of the 
eleventh century had now very generally passed away. 
Every family had to lament the loss of kindred in the field 
of battle or in the bonds of a hopeless captivity ; and hence, 
the inducements which had crowded the ranks of Godfrey 
and Conrade were at this time listened to both in France 
and England with comparative indifference. 

At length, however, about the year 1190, Philip Augus- 
tus, the French king, the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa of 
Germany, and the celebrated Richard Cceur de Lion suc- 
ceeded in raising forces, with the view of wresting once 
more the Holy Land from the thraldom of the Saracens. 
Philip received the staff and scrip at St. Denys, and Richard 
at Tours. They joined their armies at Vezelay, the gross 
amount of which was computed at one hundred thousand, 
and marched to Lyons in company. There the royal com- 
manders separated ; the former pursued the road to Genoa, 
the latter to Marseilles, — the island of Sicily being named 
as the place of their next meeting. 

Among the other fruits of the victory of Tiberias reaped 
by the brave Saladin was the possession of Acre, or Ptole- 
mais, one of the most valuable ports on the coast of Syria. 
The Crusaders, aware that they could not maintain their 
ground in the East without a constant communication with 
Europe, resolved to recover this city at whatever expense 
of life or treasure ; and with this view they had invested it 
more than twenty-two months before Richard could carry 
his reinforcements into Palestine. Upon his arrival, an 
unhappy jealousy arose between him and the King of France, 
which divided the Christians into two great parties ; nor was 
it until each had attempted with his separate force to ascend 
the ramparts of Ptolemais, and had even been repulsed with 



266 THE HISTORY OF PALESTINE 



great loss, that they consented to unite their squadrons, and 
act in unison. A reconciliation being effected, it was de- 
termined that the one should attack the walls, while tne 
other guarded the camp from the approaches of Saladiii. 
But the town had already suffered so dreadfully from tne 
length of the siege, now extended to about two years, th»t 
the garrison were disposed to sue for terms. The sultarf 
endeavoured to infuse his own invincible spirit into tne 
minds of his people, and to revive for a moment their lan- 
guid courage, by turning their hopes to Egypt, whence suc- 
cour was expected. As no aid appeared, the citizens w*ung 
from him permission to capitulate. They were accordingly 
allowed to purchase their safety by consenting to deliver 
the city into the hands of the two kings, together w<tn five 
hundred Christian prisoners who were confined in it The 
true cross also was to be restored, with one thousand such 
captives as might be selected by the allies ; it being cove- 
nanted, at the same time, that unless the Mussulmans 
within forty days paid to Richard and Philip the sum of two 
hundred thousand pieces of gold, the inhabitants of Acre 
should be at the mercy of the conquerors. 

It was on the 12th of July, 1191, that Ptolemais was re- 
covered by the Europeans ; and in the following month, 
Richard (for the King of France had already turned his 
face homewards) gained an important victory over Saladin 
at Azotus. The progress of Cceur de Lion being no longer 
disputed, he quickly arrived at Jaffa. That city was now 
without fortifications ; for when the tide of conquest ebbed 
from the Moslem, their commander gave orders to dismantle 
all the fortresses in Palestine. It was his policy to keep 
the invaders constantly in the field, and to exhaust them by 
incessant marching and sudden attacks. Some time was 
accordingly lost in restoring the works of this ancient town, 
— a period which was employed by the enemy in recruiting 
their ranks, and preparing to contest once more the laurels 
gained by the conquerors of Azotus. 

Richard, still full of confidence, declared to the Saracens 
that the only way of averting his wrath was to surrender 
the kingdom of Jerusalem as it existed in the reign of Bald- 
win the Fourth. Saladin did not reject this proposal with 
the disdain which he felt, but made a modification of the 
terms, by offering to yield all of Palestine that lay between 



FROM THE FALL OF JERUSALEM. 267 



the river Jordan and the Mediterranean. The negotiation 
lasted some time without farther concession on either side, 
when at length it became manifest that the enemy were not 
m earnest, but merely sought to derive advantage from the 
delay which they had the ingenuity to create. Hence the 
meditated attack on Jerusalem was postponed, and dissen- 
sion began to prevail in the ranks of Plantagenet. The 
winter was passed amid privations of every description, 
which, as they were partly owing to the negligence of the 
king, gave rise to numerous desertions. The inactive sea- 
son of the year was occupied in rebuilding the walls of As- 
calon, — a task in which the proudest nobles and the most 
dignified clergy laboured like the meanest of the people. 
On the return of spring both armies appeared in the field ; 
but as political disturbances in England demanded the 
presence of Richard, he manifested for the first time a greater 
disposition to negotiate than to fight. He made known to 
Saladin that he would be satisfied with the possession of the 
holy city and of the true cross. But the latter replied, that 
Jerusalem was as dear to the Moslem as to the Christian 
world ; and, moreover, that he would never be guilty of con- 
niving at idolatry by permitting the worship of a piece of 
wood. Thwarted by the religious prejudices of his enemies, 
the English commander attempted a different expedient. 
He proposed a consolidation of the Christian and Moham- 
medan interests, the establishment of a government at Jeru- 
salem, partly European and partly Asiatic ; and this scheme 
of policy was to be carried into effect by the marriage of 
Saphadin, the brother of the sultan, with the widow of Wil- 
liam, King of Sicily. The Moslem princes would have 
acceded to these terms ; but the union was thought to be so 
scandalous to religion, that the imans and priests raised a 
storm of clamour against it ; and Richard and Saladin, 
accordingly, though the most powerful and determined men 
of their age, were compelled to submit to popular opinion. 

In the month of May, therefore, Caeur de Lion began his 
march towards Jerusalem, with the firm resolution of accom- 
plishing the main object of his armament. The generals 
and soldiers vowed that they would not leave Palestine until 
they should have redeemed the Holy Sepulchre. Every 
thing wore the face of joy when this resolution was an- 
nounced. Hymns and thanksgivings gave utterance to the 



268 THE HISTORY OF PALESTINE 



general exultation. Terror seized the Mussulmans who 
were appointed to defend the sacred walls, and even Saladin 
himself gave way to apprehension for their safety. The 
Crusaders arrived at Bethlehem ; and here the stout mind 
of Planta^enet began to vacillate. He avowed his doubts 
as to the policy of a siege, as his force was not adequate to 
such a measure, and also to the regular maintenance of his 
communications with the coast, whence his supplies must 
be derived. He* submitted his difficulties to the barons of 
Syria, the Templars, and Hospitallers, declaring his readi- 
ness to abide by their decision, whether it should be to ad* 
vance or to retreat. These officers received information 
that the Turks had destroyed all the cisterns which were 
within two miles of the cit}', and they felt that the intole- 
rable heats of summer had begun ; for which reason, it was 
resolved that the attack on Jerusalem should be deferred, 
and that the army, meantime, should proceed to some other 
conquest. 

Saladin, aware of the hesitation which had chilled the 
wonted ardour of his foe, resolved to profit by this turn of 
affairs, so little to be expected under such a leader. He 
advanced by forced marches to Jaffa, with the view of re- 
ducing it before Richard could send relief. Attacking it 
with his usual vigour, he succeeded in breaking down one 
of the gates ; and such of the inhabitants as could not defend 
themselves in the great tower or escape by sea were put to 
the sword. Already were the battering-rams prepared to 
demolish that fortress, when the patriarch and some French 
and English knights agreed to become the prisoners of the 
sultan, fixing, at the same time, a heavy sum for the ransom 
of the citizens, if succour did not arrive during the next 
day. Before the morning, however, the brave Plantagenet 
reached Jaffa ; and so furious was his onset, that the Turks 
immediately deserted the town ; while their army, which 
was encamped at a little distance, no sooner saw the stand- 
ard of Richard on the walls, than they retreated some miles 
into the interior. 

But the English chieftain, harassed by unfavourable 
tidings from home, and perplexed by dissensions in his 
camp, became heartily desirous of peace. Nor was Saladin 
less willing to grant repose to his country, now exhausted by 
protracted wars. The two heroes exchanged expressions of 



FROM THE FALL OF JERUSALEM. 269 



mutual esteem ; but as Richard had often avowed his contempt 
for the vulgar obligation of oaths, they only grasped each 
other's hands in token of fidelity. A trace was agreed upon 
for three years and eight months ; the fort of Ascalon was 
dismantled ; but Jaffa and Tyre, with the intervening terri- 
tory, were surrendered to the Europeans. It was provided, 
also, that the Christians should be at liberty to perform 
their pilgrimages to Jerusalem, exempted from the taxes 
which the Moslem princes were wont to impose.* 

Towards the end of the year 1192, Richard the Lion- 
hearted withdrew from the Holy Land on his way to Eng- 
land, — a journey beset with many perils and adventures, 
which it is no part of our task to describe. We are told 
that his valour struck such terror into his enemies, that long 
after his death, when a horse trembled without any visible 
cause, the Saracens were accustomed to say that he had 
seen the ghost of the English prince. In a familiar con- 
versation which Saladin held with the warlike Bishop of 
Salisbury, he expressed his admiration of the bravery of his 
rival, but added, that he thought " the skill of the general 
-did not equal the valour of the knight." The courteous 
prelate replied to this remark, the justice of which, perhaps, 
he could not question, by assuring the sultan that there 
were not two such warriors in the world as the English and 
the Syrian monarchs. Without entering minutely into the 
comparison of two characters which presented little in com- 
mon, it must be acknowledged, that the courage of Richard 
at the head of his gallant troops prevented many of the evils 
which had been anticipated from the defeat at Tiberias. 
Palestine did not, as was apprehended, become a Moslem 
colony. A portion of the seacoast, too, w r as preserved for * 
the Christians ; while their great enemy was so enfeebled 
by repeated discomfitures, that fresh hostilities could be 
safely commenced whenever Europe should again find it 
expedient to send into the East a renewed host of military 
adventurers. Richard, besides, gained more honour in 
Syria than any of the German emperors or French kings 
who had sought renown in foreign war ; and although a 
rigid wisdom might censure his conduct as unprofitable to 

* Mills's History of the Crusades, vol. ii. p. 129. Michaud, Histoire 
$$8 Croisades, torn. iii. p. 167. 

Z % 



270 



THE HISTORY OF PALESTINE 



his country, it must be admitted that his actions were in 
unison with the spirit of the times in which he lived, when 
valour was held more important than the acquisition of 
wealth, and achievements in the field were esteemed more 
highly than the most beneficial results of victory. 

Saladin did not long survive the departure of his distin- 
guished rival. He died in the year 1193; leaving direc- 
tions, that on the day of his funeral a shroud should be 
borne on the point of a spear, and a herald proclaim in a 
loud voice, " Saladin, the conqueror of Asia, out of all the 
fruits of his victories, carries with him only this piece of 
linen." The soldiers of this distinguished sultan rallied 
round his brother Saphadin, whom they raised to the 
throne. Nor did the new monarch disappoint the expecta- 
tions that were entertained of his wisdom and valour ; for 
by the exertions of military skill, as well as by a sagacious 
policy, he strengthened the government which was com- 
mitted to his hands, and was found, at the expiration of the 
truce, ready to meet the armies of the combined powers of 
Christendom. 

The fourth Crusade was called into existence by the 
active zeal of Pope Celestine the Third, and of Henry the 
Sixth, the German emperor, who was joined by many of 
the subordinate princes of Northern Europe. The term 
of peace fixed by Richard and Saladin had indeed expired ; 
but both Christians and Moslem, exhausted by war and 
famine, were disposed to lengthen the period of repose, and 
at all events to abstain from a renewal of their sanguinary 
conflicts. Nevertheless, when the new champions of the 
Cross arrived at Acre, all remonstrances against fresh ag- 
gression were disregarded. Saphadin, who was informed 
of their hostile intentions, anticipated them in the field, 
and before they could advance to Jaffa, he had battered down 
the fortifications, and put thousands of the inhabitants to 
the sword. A general action, it is true, took place soon 
afterward, in which the strength and discipline of the Ger- 
mans secured the victory ; but, when advancing to Jerusa- 
lem, the conquerors allowed themselves to be turned aside 
in order to reduce the insignificant fortress of Thoron, 
where they met with a repulse so serious as to defeat the 
main object of the campaign. Factious contentions now 
disturbed the councils of the Latins ; vice and insubordi* 



FROM THE FALL OF JERUSALEM. 271 



nation raged in the camp ; and, to crown their miseries, 
the Crusaders were informed that the Sultans of Egypt and 
Syria were concentrating their troops with the view of 
attacking them. Alarmed at this intelligence, the German 
princes deserted their posts in the night, and fled to Tyre ; 
the road to which was soon filled with soldiers and bao-orao-e 
in indiscriminate confusion ; the feeble relinquishing their 
property, and the cowardly casting away their arms. 

Another battle took place in the neighbourhood of Jaffa, 
which terminated, as before, to the advantage of the Chris- 
tians. But the death of the Emperor Henry, the patron of 
the expedition, again disconcerted their measures. Many 
returned to Europe to assist at the election of his suc- 
cessor ; while the residue of the army, thrown into a fatal 
confidence by their late triumphs, were destroyed by a body 
x>f Turkish auxiliaries, who surprised them during the revels 
in which they commemorated the virtues and abstinence of 
;St. Martin. 

The crown of Palestine meantime, greatly shorn of its 
Justre, had devolved upon Isabella, daughter of Baldwin 
£ind sister to Sybilla. Her third husband, Henry, Count 
of Champagne, was acknowledged as king ; and upon his 
death she was advised to give her hand to Almeric of Lu^- 
signan, the brother of Guy, who had formerly swayed the 
sceptre. This union being approved by the clergy and 
barons, the marriage was celebrated at Acre, where Almeric 
and Isabella were proclaimed the sovereigns of Cyprus and 
Jerusalem. 

The repeated failure of the Christian armaments im- 
pressed upon the people of Europe a belief, either that the 
real difficulties of the enterprise had been concealed from 
them, or that the time fixed in the counsels of Providence 
for the deliverance of the Holy Land had not yet arrived, 
In such circumstances, it required the authority of the 
church and the power of eloquence, seconded by the per- 
formance of numerous miracles, to rouse the slumbering 
2eal of those who had money to give or arms to use in the 
service of the Cross. Fulk, the preacher, who equalled 
Peter the Hermit in the ardour of his address, and Bernard 
in oratorical talents, co-operated with the pope, Innocent 
the Third, in convincing the several kingdoms under his 



272 



THE HISTORY OF PALE STINK 



spiritual dominion of the necessity of a fifth combiner effort, 
in order to expel the infidels from the sacred inheritance. 

The voice of religion was again listened to with pious 
obedience, and a large force was mustered in France and 
the Low Countries. As, however, the arms of the Chris- 
tian chiefs on this occasion were not employed against the 
Saracens, but against their own brethren of the Grecian 
empire, the object of our work does not require that we 
should do more than follow their steps to the shores of the 
Bosphorus. In April, 1204, Constantinople fell into their 
hands, and was subjected to all the horrors and indignity 
which usually punish the resistance of a strong city. The 
remains of the fine arts, which the Eastern Church had 
preserved as consecrated memorials of her triumph over 
paganism, were destroyed with peculiar industry by the less 
polished Latins, who were pleased to view with contempt 
the superior taste of their rivals. The establishment of the 
Crusaders in the capital of the Lower Empire, where they 
elected a sovereign and formed an administration, was the 
only result of the fifth expedition against the Moslem. 
Their dominion lasted fifty-seven years, at the end of which 
Manuel Paleologus, descendant of Lascaris, and son-in-law 
of the Emperor Alexis, recovered the throne of the Cesars, 
and finally expelled the usurpers from the city of Con- 
stantine. 

The successes of the French against the Greeks had, 
however, an indirect influence in promoting the welfare of 
the Christians in Palestine. The Mussulmans were 
alarmed, and Saphadin gladly concluded a truce for six 
years. But the country was doomed to be soon deprived 
of the tranquillity afforded by a cessation of arms. Alme- 
ric and his wife being dead, Mary, the daughter of Isabella 
by Conrade of Tyre, was acknowledged Queen of Jerusa- 
lem ; while Hugh de Lusignan, son of Almeric by his first 
wife, was proclaimed King of Cyprus. There was not at 
that time in Palestine any powerful nobleman capable of 
governing the state ; on which account the civil and eccle- 
siastical potentates resolved that Philip Augustus of France 
should be requested to provide a husband for Mary. The 
French monarch fixed his eyes on John de Brienne who 
was esteemed among the knights of Europe as equally 
wise in council and experienced in war. 



FROM THE FALL OF JERUSALEM. 273 



The hopes inspired by this union raised the pretensions 
of the Christian community so high, that they refused to 
prolong the truce which still subsisted between them and 
the sultan. The latter, therefore, marched an army to the 
neighbourhood of Tripoli, and threatened hostilities. The 
young king took the field at the head of a respectable force, 
and displayed his valour in many a fierce encounter ; and 
though he did not succeed in conquering his foes, he saved 
his states from the utter annihilation with which they were 
threatened. He foresaw, however, the approaching ruin 
of the sacred cause ; for he could not fail to observe that, 
while the Saracens were constantly acquiring new advan- 
tages, the Latin barons were embracing every opportunity 
of returning home. He accordingly wrote to the pope, that 
the kingdom of Jerusalem consisted only of two or three 
towns, and that its fate must already have been determined 
but for the civil wars which had raged among the sons of 
Saladin. 

His holiness was not deaf to a remonstrance so just and 
important. In a circular letter to the sovereigns of Europe, 
he reminded them that the time was now come when a suc- 
cessful effort might be made to secure possession of Pales- 
tine, and that, while those who should fight faithfully for 
God would obtain a crown of glory, such as refused to serve 
him would be punished everlastingly. He employed, among 
other arguments, a consideration which has since been often 
urged by Protestant writers against his own church ; 
stating, that " the Mohammedan heresy, the beast foretold 
by the Spirit, will not live for ever — its age is 666." He 
concluded with the assurance, that Jesus Christ would con- 
demn them for gross ingratitude and infidelity, if they 
neglected to march to his succour at a time when he was in 
danger of being driven from a kingdom he had acquired by 
his own blood. 

The preacher of the next Crusade was Robert de Cour 
§on, a man inferior in talents and rank to St. Bernard, but 
whose fanaticism was as fervent as that of the Hermit and 
Fulk. He invited all to assume the Cross, and enrolled in 
the sacred militia women, children, the old, the blind, the 
lame, and even the distempered. The multitude of Cru- 
saders, as might be expected, was very great, and the vol- 
untary offerings of money were immense. A council was 



274 THE HISTORY OF PALESTINE 



held in the church of the Lateral), in which the Emperor 
of Constantinople, the Kings of France, England, Hun- 
gary, Jerusalem, Arragon, and other countries, were rep- 
resented. War against the Saracens was unanimously 
declared to be the most sacred duty of the Christian world. 
The usual privileges, dispensations, and indulgences were 
granted to the pilgrims ; and the pope, besides other ex- 
penses, contributed thirty thousand pounds. 

It was in the year 1216 that the sixth Crusade, consist- 
ing chiefly of Hungarians and the soldiers of Lower Ger- 
many, landed at Acre. The sons of Saphadin were now 
at the head of affairs in Syria, their father having retired 
from the fatigues of royalty ; and, although unprepared to 
oppose so large a host with any prospect of success, they 
mustered what forces they could collect and advanced to 
Naplosa, the modern Nablous. But the insubordination 
of the invaders made victory more easy than was antici- 
pated. Destitute of provisions, they wandered over the 
country, committing the greatest enormities, and suffering 
from time to time very severe losses from the just indigna- 
tion of the inhabitants. At length the sovereign of Hun- 
gary, disgusted with the campaign, refused to remain any 
longer in Palestine, — a defection which compelled the King 
of Jerusalem, the Duke of Austria, and the Master of the 
Hospitallers to take up a defensive position on the Plain 
of Cesarea. The knights of the other military orders, the 
Templar and Teutonic, seized upon Mount Carmel, which 
they fortified for the occasion. But their fears were re* 
lieved in the spring of the following year by the arrival of 
a large body of new and most zealous Crusaders from the 
upper parts of Germany. Nearly three hundred vessels 
sailed from the Rhine, which, after having sustained more 
than the usual casualties of a voyage in the North Sea, 
landed on the shores of Syria those martial bands who had 
assembled in the neighbourhood of the Elbe and the 
Weser. 

For reasons which are not very clearly assigned, but hav- 
ing some reference, it may be conjectured, to the exhausted 
state of the country, the chiefs of the Crusade came to the 
resolution of withdrawing their troops from Palestine, and 
of carrying the war into Egypt. Damietta, not unjustly 
regarded as the key of that kingdom on the line of the 



FROM THE FALL OF JERUSALEM. 275 



coast, was made the first object of attack ; and so vigorous 
were the approaches of the assailants, that the castle or 
fortress, which was supposed to command the town, fell 
into their hands. Meantime a reinforcement from Europe 
appeared at the mouth of the Nile. Italy sent forth her 
choicest soldiers, headed by Pelagius and De Cour^on, as le- 
gates of the pope. The Counts of Nevers and La Marche, the 
Archbishop of Bourdeaux, the Bishops of Meaux, Autun, 
and Paris, led the youth of France ; while the English 
troops were conducted by the Earls of Chester, Arundel, 
and Salisbury, men celebrated for their heroism and expe- 
rience in the field. 

The tide of success flowed for some time so strongly in 
favour of the Christians, that the Saracen leaders were 
desirous to conclude a peace very advantageous to their in- 
vaders. When the loss of Damietta appeared inevitable, 
the Sultan of Syria, Khamel, the son of Saphadin, appre- 
hensive that the Crusaders would immediately advance 
against Jerusalem, issued orders to destroy the fortifica- 
tions, to prevent its being held by them as a place of de- 
fence. But in the negotiation which was opened between 
the contending powers, the Mussulmans consented to re- 
build the walls of the sacred city, to return the portion of 
the true cross, and to liberate all the prisoners in Syria and 
Egypt. Of the whole kingdom of Palestine, they pro- 
posed to retain only the castles of Karac and Montereale, 
as necessary for the safe passage of pilgrims and merchants 
in their intercourse with Mecca. As an equivalent for 
these important concessions, they required nothing more 
than the instant evacuation of Egypt, and a complete re- 
linquishment of the conquests which had been recently 
made in it by the arms of the Crusaders. 

The Christian chiefs, after a stormy discussion, deter- 
mined to reject the terms offered by the allied sultans, and 
to prosecute the siege of Damietta. This devoted town, 
having been invested more than a year and a half, was at 
length carried by assault ; but so resolute and persevering 
had been the defence, that of seventy thousand inhabitants, 
who were shut up by the Crusaders, only three thousand 
remained to witness their triumph. 

The Saracens, fatigued with the horrors of war, once 
more proposed a treaty on terms similar to those which 



276 



THE HISTORY OF PALESTINE 



were offered before the fall of Damietta. But the victors, 
whose wisdom in council was never equal to their valour 
in the field of battle, again refused to conclude a peace. The 
prevailing- party recommended an immediate attack upon 
Grand Cairo ; anticipating the reduction of the whole of 
Egypt, and the final subjection of all the Mohammedan 
states on the shores of the Mediterranean. This vision of 
greatness, however, soon vanished before the real difficulties 
of a campaign on the banks of the Nile. In a few months 
the leaders of the expedition found themselves reduced to 
the necessity of soliciting permission to return into Pales- 
tine ; consenting to purchase safety by giving up all the 
acquisitions they had made since the first day that they 
opened their trenches before Damietta. The barons of 
Syria and the military orders retired to Acre, where they 
held themselves in readiness to sustain an attack from the 
indignant Moslems ; the mass of the volunteers and pil- 
grims soon afterward procuring the means of returning into 
Europe. 

Frederick the Second of Germany, who had engaged to 
lead a strong force into Syria, was so long prevented by 
domestic cares from fulfilling his promise, that he incurred 
the resentment of the pope, who actually pronounced 
against him a sentence of excommunication.* The em- 
peror, at length, was induced to marry Violante, the daughter 
of John de Brienne, and accept as her dowry the kingdom 
of Jerusalem. In the year 1228 he arrived at Acre, with 
the view of making good his pretensions to the sacred dia- 
dem, — an object which he finally attained, not less by the 
connivance of the sultan than by the exertions of his mili- 
tary companions. The son of Saphadin felt his throne 
rendered insecure by the ambition or treachery of his own 
kindred, and was therefore much inclined to cultivate an 

* A cur£ at Paris, instead of reading the bnll from the pulpit in the 
usual form, said to his parishioners, "You know, my friends, that I am 
ordered to fulminate an excommunication against Frederick. I know 
not the motive. All that I know is, that there has been a quarrel be- 
tween that prince and the pope. God alone knows who is right. I ex- 
communicate him who has injured the other, and I absolve the sufferer." 
The emperor sent a present to the preacher, but the pope and the king 
blamed this sally : le mauvais plaisant — the unhappy wit — was obliged 
to expiate his fault by a canonical penance. — Mills's History, voL ii. 
p. 353. 



FROM THE FALL OF JERUSALEM. 277 



amicable feeling with so powerful a prince as the sovereign 
of Germany. In pursuance of these views a treaty was 
signed, providing that for ten years the Christians and 
Mussulmans were to live on a footing of brotherhood ; that 
Jerusalem, Jaffa, Bethlehem, Nazareth, and their depend- 
encies, were to be restored to the former ; that the Holy 
Sepulchre was likewise to be given up to them ; and that 
the people of both religions might offer up their devotions in 
that house of prayer, which the one called the Temple of 
Solomon, and the other the Mosque of Omar. Thus the 
address or good fortune of Frederick more effectually pro- 
moted the object of the Holy Wars than the heroic phrensy 
of Richard Cceur de Lion ; many of the disasters conse- 
quent on the battle of Tiberias were wiped away ; and the 
hopes of Europe for a permanent settlement in Asia ap- 
peared to be realized. 

But the emperor had performed all these services while 
the stain of excommunication was yet unremoved from his 
character. The fidelity of the knights, accordingly, whose 
oaths had a reference to the supremacy of the church, and 
the attachment of the clergy, could not be relied upon 
Hence, when he went to Jerusalem to be crowned, the pa- 
triarch would not discharge his office ; the places of worship 
were closed ; and no religious duties were observed in pub- 
lic during his stay. Frederick repaired to the Church of 
the Holy Sepulchre, surrounded by his courtiers, and boldly 
taking the crown from the altar, placed it on his own head. 
He then issued orders for rebuilding the fortifications of his 
eastern capital ; after which he returned to Acre, whence 
he almost immediately set sail for Europe.* 

* The address of the Pope to the Fourth Council of Lateran, as trans- 
lated by Michaud, is not a little striking : — " O vous qui passez dans les 
chemins, disait Jerusalem par la bouche du Pontife, regardez et voyez si 
jamais il y eut une douleur semblable a la mienne ! Accourez done 
tous, 6 vous qui me cherissez, pour me delivrer de l'exces de mes mise- 
res ! Moi, qui etais la regue de tontes les nations, je suis maintenant 
asservie au tribut ; moi, qui etais remplie de peuple, je suis restee 
presque seule. Les chemins de Sion sont en deuil, parceque personne no 
vient a mes solemnites. Mes ennemis ont ecrase ma tete ; tous les lieux 
saints sont profanes ; le saint sepulchre, si rempli d'eclat, est couvert 
d'opprobre ; on adore le fils de la perdition et de l'enfer, la ou nagueres 
on adorait le fils de Dieu. Les enfants de l'etranger m'accablent d'out- 
rages, et montrant la crtnx de Jesus, ils me disent : — ' Tu as mis toute 
la confiance dans un bois vil ; nous verrons si ce hois te sauvera au 
jour de danger.' "—Histoire des Croisades } torn. iii. p. 394. 



278 



THE HISTORY OF PALESTINE 



The peace established between Frederick and the Sara* 
cen rulers was not faithfully observed by the latter, some 
of whom did not consider themselves as bound by its stipu- 1 
lations. The sufferings endured by the Christians of Pal- 
estine accordingly called their brethren in Europe once 
more to arms. A council, held under the auspices of the 
pope at Spoleto, decreed that fresh levies should be sent 
into Asia so soon as the truce with Khamel, the sultan of 
Damascus, should have expired. Many of the English no- 
bility, inflamed by the love of warlike fame, took the cross* 
and prepared to follow the standard of the Earl of Ches- 
ter, and of Richard, earl of Cornwall, brother to King Henry 
the Third. 

In this pious movement the lords of England were antici- 
pated by those of France, who, in the year 1239, landed 
in Syria, and prepared to measure lances with the Moslems* 
News of these warlike proceedings having reached the 
nephew of Saladin, he forthwith drove the Christians out 
of Jerusalem, and demolished the Tower of David, — a 
monument which till that time had been regarded as sacred 
by both parties. The combats which followed, although 
fought with great bravery on the side of the invaders, ter- 
minated generally in favour of the Saracens ; and the 
French accordingly, after losing a great number of their 
best warriors, were glad to have recourse to terms of peace. 
The Templars entered into treaty with the Emir of KaraC* 
while the Hospitallers, actuated by jealousy or revenge, 
preferred the friendship of the Sultan of Egypt. 

The following year Richard, the earl of Cornwall, arrived 
with his levy, hoping to find his allies in possession of all 
the towns which had been ceded to the Emperor of Ger- 
many, and enjoying security in the exercise of their reli- 
gious rites. His surprise was therefore very great, when 
he discovered that the principal leaders of the French had 
already fled from the plains of Syria ; that the knights of 
the two great orders had sought refuge in negotiation ; and, 
finally, that the conquests of the former Crusaders were 
once more limited to a few fortresses and a strip of territory 
on the coast. He marched in the first instance to Jaffa, 
with the view of concentrating the scattered forces of Eu- 
rope ; but receiving notice, as soon as he arrived, that the 
Sultan of Egypt, who was then at war with his brother of 



FROM THE FALL OF JERUSALEM. 279 



Damascus, was desirous to cultivate friendly relations, he 
lent a ready ear to the terms proposed. The Mussulman 
consented to relinquish Jerusalem, Beritus, Nazareth, 
Bethlehem, Mount Tabor, and a large portion of the Holy 
Land, provided the English earl would withdraw his troops 
and preserve a strict neutrality. 

The conditions being ratified by the Egyptian sovereign, 
the Earl of Cornwall had the satisfaction to see the great 
object of the Crusaders one© more accomplished. Pales- 
tine again belonged to the Christians. The Hospitallers 
opened their treasury to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, 
while the patriarch and clergy entered the holy city to re- 
consecrate the churches. For two years the gospel was 
the only religion administered in the sacred capital, and the 
faithful had begun to exult in the permanent subjection of 
their rivals, when a new enemy arose, more formidable to 
them than even the Saracens. 

The victories of Zingis Khan had displaced several na- 
tions belonging to the great Tartar family, and among 
others the Karismians, who continued their retreat south- 
ward till they reached the confines of Egypt. The sultan, 
who perhaps had repented the liberality of his terms to the 
soldiers of Richard, advised the expatriated barbarians to 
take possession of Palestine. He even sent one of his 
principal officers and a large body of troops to serve as 
their guides ; upon which, Barbacan, the Karismian gene- 
ral, at the head of twenty thousand cavalry, advanced into 
the Holy Land. The garrison of Jerusalem, being quite 
inadequate to its defence, retired, and were followed by 
many of the inhabitants. The invaders entered it without 
opposition, sparing neither life nor property, and respecting 
nothing, whether sacred or profane. At length the Tem- 
plars and Hospitallers, forgetting their mutual animosities, 
united their bands to rescue the country from the grasp of 
such savages. A battle took place, which, after continuing 
two whole days, ended in the total defeat of the Christians ; 
the Grand Masters of St. John and of the Temple being 
among the slain. Only thirty-three individuals of the latter 
order, and sixteen of the former, with three Teutonic cava? 
liers, remained alive, and succeeded in making their way to 
Acre, the last refuge of the vanquished knights. The Ka* 
rismians, with their Egyptian allies, after having razed the 



280 THE HISTORY OF PALESTINE 



fortifications of Ascalon and Tiberias, encamped on the 
seacoast, laid waste the surrounding territory, and slew or 
carried into bondage every Frank who fell into their hands. 
Nor was it till the year i247 that the Syrians and Mam- 
louks, insulted by this northern horde, attacked them near 
Damascus, slew Barbacan their chief, and compelled the 
remainder to retrace their steps to the borders of the Cas- 
pian Lake. 

The intelligence did not fail to reach Europe that the 
members of the Church in Palestine had been put to death 
or dispersed by the exiles of Karism. Pope Innocent the 
Fourth suggested the expediency of another Crusade, and 
even summoned all his faithful children to take arms. He 
wrote to Henry the Third, king of England, urging him to 
press on his subjects the necessity of punishing the Karis- 
mians. But the spirit of crusading was more active in 
France than in any other country of the West, and it re- 
vived in all the vigour of its chivalrous piety in the reign 
of Louis the Ninth. Agreeably to the superstition of the 
times, he had vowed, while afflicted by a severe illness, that 
in case of recovery he would travel to the Holy Land. 
The Cross was likewise taken by the three royal brothers, 
the Counts of Artois, Poictiers, and Anjou, by the Duke of 
Burgundy, the Countess of Flanders and her two sons, 
together with many knights of high degree. 

But it was not till 1249 that the soldiers of Louis were 
mustered, and his ships prepared for sea ; the former 
amounting to fifty thousand, while his vessels of all descrip- 
tions exceeded eighteen hundred. They set sail for Egypt ; 
a storm separated the fleet ; but the royal division, in which 
were nearly three thousand knights and their men-at- 
arms, arrived in the neighbourhood of Damietta. On the 
second day the king ordered the disembarkation ; he him- 
self leaped into the water ; his warriors followed him to 
the shore ; upon which the Saracens, panic-struck at their 
boldness and determination, made but a slight show of 
defence, and fled into the interior. Although Damietta was 
better prepared for a siege than at that period when it de- 
fied the arms of the Crusaders during eighteen months, yet 
the garrison were pleased to seek safety in the fleetness of 
their horses. Louis fixed his residence in the city ; a 
Christian government was established ; and the clergy, as 



FROM THE FALL OF JERUSALEM. 28 3 



they were wont on such occasions, proceeded to purify the 
mosques. 

Towards the close of the year, after being joined by a 
body of English volunteers, the French monarch resolved 
to march to Cairo and attack the sultan in the heart of his 
kingdom. But the floods of the Nile, and the intersection 
of the country by numerous canals, occasioned a second 
time the loss of a brave army. Famine and disease, too, 
aided the sword of the enemy, till at length the victors of 
Damietta were compelled to sue for a peace which they 
could no longer obtain. A retreat was ordered ; but those 
who attempted to escape by the river were taken prisoners, 
and the fate of such as proceeded by land was equally dis- 
astrous. While they were occupied in constructing a bridge 
over a canal, the Saracens entered the camp and murdered 
the sick. The valiant king, though oppressed with the 
general calamity of disease, sustained boldly the shock of 
the enemy, throwing himself into the midst of them, re- 
solved to perish rather than desert his troops. One of his 
attendants succeeded at length in drawing him from the 
presence of the foe, and conducted him to a village, where 
he sunk under his wounds and fatigue into a state of utter 
insensibility. In this miserable condition he was overtaken 
by the Moslems, who announced to him that he was their 
captive. One of his brothers, the gallant Artois, had 
already fallen in battle, but the two others, Anjou and Poic- 
tiers, with all the nobility, fell into the hands of the enemy. 

The sultan did not abuse his victory, nor seek to impose 
upon Louis terms which a sovereign could not grant with- 
out forfeiting his honour. He agreed to accept a sum 
equivalent to five hundred thousand livres for the de*- 
liverance of the army, and the town of Damietta as a ran- 
som for the royal person. Peace was to continue ten years 
between the Mussulmans and the Christians ; while the 
Franks were to be restored to those privileges in the kingdom 
of Jerusalem which they had enjoyed previous to the recent 
invasion of the French. The repose which succeeded this 
treaty was interrupted by the murder of the sultan, who 
fell a victim to the jealousy of the Mamlouks ; but after a 
few acts of hostility too insignificant to be recorded, the 
emirs renewed, with a few modifications, the basis of the 
agreement on which the peace was established. Louis 

Aa? 



282 THE HISTORY OF PALESTINE 



himself made a narrow escape from the sanguinary intrigues 
of those military slaves who had imbrued their hands in 
the blood of their own master. They declared that, as they 
had committed a sin by destroying their sultan, whom, by 
their law, they ought to have guarded as the apple of their 
eye, their religion would be violated if they suffered a 
Christian king to live. But the other chiefs, more honour- 
able than the Mamlouks, disdained to commit a crime under 
any such pretext ; and the French monarch, accordingly, 
was allowed to accompany the poor remains of his army 
to the citadel of Acre. 

It has been remarked that the expedition of St. Louis 
into Egypt resembles in many respects the war carried on 
in that country thirty years before. In both cases the 
Christian armies were encamped near the entrance of the 
Ashmoun canal, beyond which they could not advance ; 
and the surrender of Damietta in each instance was the 
price of safety. The errors of the Cardinal Pelagius seem 
not to have been recollected by the French king, who, in 
fact, trod in his steps with a fatal blindness, and ended by 
paying a still severer penalty. 

A gleam of hope arose in the minds of the Crusaders 
from finding the rulers of Egypt and of Syria engaged in a 
furious war. The Mamlouks even condescended to solicit 
the co-operation of Louis, and agreed to purchase it by 
remitting one-half of the ransom which still remained un- 
paid. They further consented to deliver up Jerusalem 
itself, and also the youthful captives taken on the banks of 
the Nile, whom they had compelled to embrace the Mussul- 
man faith. But before the Franks could appear in the field, 
the interposition of the calif had restored peace to the 
contending parties, both of whom immediately resumed 
their wonted dislike to the European invaders. 

The infidels, however, at this period did not pursue their 
schemes of conquest with the vigour and ability which dis- 
tinguished the movements of Noureddin, and more espe- 
cially of Saladin, his renowned successor. They might 
have swept the feeble and exhausted Christians from the 
shores of Palestine ; but they merely ravaged the country 
round Acre, and then proceeded to Sidon, in the strong 
castle of which Louis and his army had taken refuge. The 
Wood and property of the citizens satisfied the barbarians, 



\ 



FROM THE FALL OF JERUSALEM. 283 



who departed without trying the valour of the soldiers who 
occupied the garrison. 

The death of Queen Blanche, the mother of the king, 
and regent during his absence, afforded him a good apology 
for leaving the country, of which he had long been tired. 
The patriarch and barons of the Holy Land offered him 
their humble thanks for the honour he had bestowed upon 
their cause, and for the benefits which he had conferred 
upon themselves individually. Louis, sensible that he had 
gathered no laurels in Palestine, and that the interests of 
the church were even in a more hopeless condition than 
when he landed at Damietta, listened to their address with 
mingled emotions of shame and regret, and forthwith pre- 
pared himself for his voyage homewards.* 

Thus terminated that expedition, of which, says a French 
author, the commencement filled all Christian states with 
joy, and which, in the end, plunged all the West into mourn- 
ing. The king arrived at Vincennes on the 5th of Sep- 
tember, 1254, accompanied by a crowd collected from all 
quarters. The more they forgot his reverses, the more 
bitterly he called to mind the fate of his brave companions, 
whom he had left in the mud of Egypt or on the sands of 
Palestine ; and the melancholy which he showed in his 
countenance formed a striking contrast to the public con- 
gratulation on the return of a beloved prince. His first 
care, says the historian, was to go to St. Denys, to pros- 
trate himself at the feet of the apostles of France ; the next 
day he made his entrance into the capital, preceded by the 
clergy, the nobility, and the people. He still wore the 
cross upon his shoulder ; the sight of which, by recalling 
the motives of his long absence, inspired the fear that he 4 
had not abandoned the enterprise of the Crusade. t 

* " On ee rappelait alors les vertus dont il avait donne l'exemple, et sur ■ 
tout sa bonte, envers les habitants de la Palestine, qu'il avait traites 
comme ses propres sujets. Les uns exprimaient leur reconnaissance par 
de vives acclamations, les autres par une morne silence ; tout le peuple 
qu'affligeait son depart, le proclamait le fire des Chretiens, et conjurait 
le ciel de repandre ses benedictions sur la famille du vertueux monarque 
et sur la royaume de France. Louis montrait sur son visage, qu'il par 
tageait les regrets des Chretiens de la Terre-Sainte ; il leur addressait 
des paroles consolantes, leur donnait d'utiles conseils, se reprochait de 
n'avoir fait assez pour leur cause, et temoignait le vif desir qu'un jour 
Dieu le juge&t digne d'achever l'ouvrage de leur delivrance." — Michauc^ 
Histoire des Croisades, torn. iv. p. 299. 

t Ibid. p. 302. 

l 



gS4 THE HISTORY OF PALESTINE 



The misfortunes sustained in the field were greatly 
increased by the dissensions which prevailed among the 
military orders after the departure of Louis. The Tem- 
plars and Hospitallers, especially, never forgot their jeal- 
ousies except when engaged in battle with the Mussulmans ; 
for, in every interval of peace, they mutually gratified their 
arrogance and contempt by wrangling on points of prece- 
dency and professional reputation. At length an appeal 
to arms was made, with the view of determining which of 
these kindred associations should stand highest as soldiers 
in the estimation of Europe. The Knights of St. John 
gained the victory ; and so bloody was the conflict that no 
quarter was granted, and hardly a single Templar escaped 
alive. 

But these unseemly disputes were soon drowned amid 
the shouts of a more formidable warfare waged against 
Palestine by the Mamlouk sovereign of Egypt, the san- 
guinary and bigoted Bibars. His troops demolished the 
churches of Nazareth and Mount Tabor ; after which they 
advanced to the gates of Acre, inflicting the most horrid 
cruelties upon the unprotected Christians. Sephouri and 
Azotus were taken by storm, or yielded upon terms. At the 
reduction of the former, it was agreed that the knights and 
garrison, amounting in all to six hundred men, should be 
conducted to the nearest Christian town. But no sooner 
was the sultan put in possession of the fortress than he 
violated the conditions of surrender, and left the knights 
only a few hours to determine on the alternative of death 
or conversion to Islamism. The prior and two Franciscan 
monks succeeded by their exhortations in fixing the faith 
of the religious cavaliers ; and hence, at the time appointed 
for the declaration of their choice, they unanimously avowed 
their resolution to die rather than incur the dishonour of 
apostacy. The decree for the slaughter of the Templars 
was pronounced and executed ; while the three preachers 
jof martyrdom, as if responsible for the conduct of their 
..countrymen, were flayed alive. 

A large Christian state had been formed at Antioch, in 
alliance with the kingdom of Jerusalem. Bibars, after 
reducing Jaffa and the castle of Beaufort, marched his fierce 
soldiers against the capital of Syria, and soon added it to 
the number of his conquests. Forty thousand believers i$ 



FROM THE FALL OF JERUSALEM. 285 



Christ were on this occasion put to the sword, and not 
fewer than one hundred thousand were led into captivity. 
The barbarian, indeed, avowed the fell purpose of exter- 
minating the whole Christian community in the East, ex- 
tending the terror of death or the ascendency of the Koran 
from the Nile to the mountains of Armenia. But his pro- 
gress was stopped by the intelligence which reached him in 
Palestine, that the King of Cyprus had resolved to inter- 
pose his arms in behalf of the Holy Land, and was about 
to make a descent on the coast at the head of a large force 
collected from various nations. Bibars returned to Cairo, 
fitted out a fleet for the conquest of that island, and intended, 
during the absence of its sovereign, to annex it perma- 
nently to the dominions of Egypt. But his ships were 
lost in a tempest ; his military character suffered from the 
failure of the enterprise ; his power was weakened ; and 
he ceased to be any longer the scourge and dread of the 
Christian world. 

Before the atroeities of this Mamlouk chief were made 
known in Europe, the people of the West had made prepara- 
tions for the ninth Crusade. Louis was not able to conceal 
from himself, that his first expedition to the Holy Land had 
brought more shame on France than benefit to the Christian 
cause. Nay, he was not without fear, that his personal 
reputation was in some degree tarnished by the fatal result 
of his attack on Egypt, so unwisely and rashly conducted. 
The Pope favoured his inclination for a new attempt ; and 
accordingly, in a general meeting of the higher clergy and 
nobles, held at Paris in 1 268, the king exhorted his people 
to avenge the wrongs which Christ had so long suffered at 
the hands of the unbelieving Moslems. 

In England a similar spirit had long prevailed among the 
priesthood and the great body of the commons ; but Henry 
the Third, taught by experience that the late Crusades had 
only weakened the friends and strengthened the enemies of 
Christianity, refused to countenance this popular folly at the 
time when Louis first assumed the cross. On the present 
occasion, however, he permitted his son Edward, with the 
Earls of Warwick and Pembroke, to receive the holy ensign, 
and to join the sovereign of France in his renewed attempt 
to plant the emblem of his faith on the walls of Jerusalem. 

It was not till the spring of 1270 that St, Louis spread his 



THE HISTORY OF PALESTINE 



sails the second time for the Holy Land. The feelings of 
religious and military ardour which animated the heart of 
this pious monarch were diffused through the sixty thou- 
sand soldiers who followed his banners. He could count, 
too, among his leaders, the descendants of those gallant 
chiefs, the lords of Brittany, of Flanders, and Champagne, 
who in former generations had distinguished themselves in 
fighting the battles of the church. But notwithstanding 
such promising appearances, this proud armament took the 
sea under an evil omen. The fleet was driven into Sar^- 
dinia ; and there a great and unfortunate change was made 
in the plan of operations. Instead of proceeding to Pales- 
tine, it was resolved that the troops should be landed in the 
neighbourhood of Tunis, to assist the Christians in extend- 
ing their faith in opposition to the disciples of the Koran, 
Success, indeed, crowned the first efforts of the invaders ; 
Carthage fell into their hands ; and more splendid con* 
quests seemed to invite their progress into the heart of the 
Mohammedan nations of Northern Africa. But a pestilen- 
tial disease, the scourge of those burning shores, soon 
spread its ravages among the ranks of the Christians. 
Louis, the great stay of the Crusaders, was stricken with 
the fatal sickness, and died, leaving his army, which had 
accomplished nothing, to prosecute the war, or to return 
with sullied standards into their native country,* 

Prince Edward, who condemned the vacillating conduct 
of his allies, had already passed from Africa into Sicily, 
where he spent the following winter. In the early part of 
the year 1271, he set sail for Acre, where he landed at the 

*It was during the siege of Tunis that Louis died. " Our Edward 
would needs have had the town beaten down, and all put to the sword ; 
thinking the foulest quarter too fair for them. Their goods (because 
got by robbery) he would have sacrificed as an anathema to God, and 
burnt to ashes ; his own share he execrated, and caused it to be burnt, 
forbidding the English to save any thing of it ; because that coals stolen 
put of that fire would sooner burn their houses than warm their hands. 
It troubled not the consciences of other princes to enrich themselves 
herewith, but they glutted themselves with the stolen honie which they 
found in this hive of drones: and, which was worse, now their belliea 
were full, they would goe to bed, return home, and goe no farther. Yea, 
the young King of France, called Philip the Bold, was fearful to prosecute 
his journey to Palestine ; whereas Prince Edward struck his breast, and 
swore, that though all his friends forsook him, yet he would enter Ptole- 
mais though but only with Fowin his horsekeeper. By which speech he 
Incensed the English to go on with him."— Fuller's Holy Warre, p» 217, 



FROM THE FALL OF JERUSALEM. %8f 



head of only one thousand men ; but so high was his repu- 
tation among the Latins of Palestine, that he soon found 
his army increased sevenfold, and eager to be employed ill 
the redemption of the sacred territory. He led them, in the 
first plaCe, against Nazareth, which did not long resist the 
vigour of his attack ; and, almost immediately afterward* 
he surprised a large Turkish force, whom he cut in pieces* 
The Moslems imagined that another Cceur de Lion had been 
sent from England to scourge them into discipline, or to 
shake the foundation of their power in Syrian Edward wag 
brave and skilful as a warrior, and owed his success not less 
to his able dispositions than to his personal courage. But 
he was cruel and lavish of human blood. The barbarities 
which disgraced the triumphs of the first Crusade were re* 
peated on a smaller scale at Nazareth, where the prince" 
put the whole garrison to death, and subjected the inhabit 
ants to unnecessary suffering. 

The resentment of the governor of Jaffa is said to have* 
pointed the dagger which was aimed at the heart of the 
English prince by the hand of an assassin. The wretch, as 
the bearer of letters, was admitted into the chamber of Ed- 
ward, who, not suspecting treachery, received several severe 
Wounds before he could dash the assailant to the floor and 
despatch him with his sword. But as the weapon used by 
the Saracen had been steeped in poison, the life of his in* 
tended victim was for some hours in imminent danger* 
The chivalrous fiction of that romantic age has ascribed his 
recovery to the kind offices of one of that sex whose generous 
affections are seldom chilled by the calculations of selfish- 
ness. His wife, Eleanora, is said to have sucked the poison 
from his wound, at the hazard of instant death to herself,^ 
a story which, having received the sanction of the learned 
Camden, has not unfrequently been held as an indisputable 
fact. The more authentic edition of the narrative attributes 
the restoration of Edward's health to the usual means em- 
ployed by surgical skill, aided by the resources of a strong i 
mind and a vigorous constitution.* 

* " It is storied how Eleanor, his lady, sucked all the poison out of his 
wounds, without doing any harm to herself. So sovereign a remedy is 
a woman's tongue anointed with the virtue of loving affection ! Pity it 
is that so pretty a story should not be true (with all the miracles in love's 
legends), and sure he shall get himself no credit who undertaketfa f© 



588 THE HISTORY OF PALESTINE 



It soon became manifest that the valour and ability of 
Edward, unsupported by an adequate force, could make no 
lasting impression upon the Moslem power in Syria. Ac- 
cordingly, after having spent fourteen months in Acre, he 
listened to proposals for peace made by the Sultan of Egypt, 
who, being engaged in war with the Saracens whom he had 
displaced, was eager to terminate hostilities with the Eng- 
lish. A suspension of arms, to continue ten years, was 
formally signed by the two chiefs ; whereupon the Mam- 
louk withdrew his troops from Palestine, and Edward em- 
barked for his native country. 

The loss and discomfiture which for more than a hundred 
years had concluded every attempt to regain the Holy Land 
did not yet extirpate the hope of final success in the hearts 
of the clergy and sovereigns of the West. Gregory the 
Ninth, who himself had served in the Christian armies of 
Syria, exerted all the means in his power to equip another 
expedition against the enemies of the faith. The small 
republics of Italy, which found a ready employment for 
their shipping in transporting troops to Palestine, were the 
first to embrace the cause recommended by their spiritual 
ruler. The King of France seemed to favour the enter- 
prise, and advanced money on the mortgage of certain 
estates within his dominions belonging to the Templars ; 
Charles of Anjou followed the example of his royal relation ; 
and Michael Paleologus, the Emperor of the East, an- 
nounced his willingness to take arms against the ambitious 
sultan, who already threatened the independence of Greece. 
A council held at Lyons in 1274 sanctioned the obligations 
of a crusade, and imposed upon the church and other estates 
such taxes as appeared sufficient to carry it to a successful 
issue. But the death of the pope dissolved the coalition, and 
all preparations for renewing the war were immediately laid 
aside, — never to be resumed. 

conflate a passage so sounding to the honour of the sex. Yet can it not 
stand with what others have written," — Fuller's Holy Warre, p. 220. 

" The admirall of Joppa, hearing of his reeoverie, utterly disavowed 
that he had any hand in the treacherie ; as none will willingly father un- 
succeeding villainy. True it is, he was truly sorrowfull ; whether be- 
cause Edward was so bad, or no worse wounded, He knoweth that 
knoweth hearts. Some wholly acquit him herein, and conceive this mis- 
chief proceeded from Simon, Earl of Montfort's hatred to our prince." — 
Holy Warre, p. 220. 



FROM THE FALL OF JERUSALEM* 289 



The Franks in Palestine, now left to their own resources, 
ought to have cultivated peace, and more especially to have 
abstained from positive and direct aggression. Their con- 
duct, however, was not marked by such abstinence or wis- 
dom. On the contrary, by attacking certain Mohammedan 
merchants, they provoked the anger of the sultan, who swore 
by God and the Prophet that he would avenge the wrong. 
A war fatal to the Christian interests was the immediate 
consequence. Their fortresses were rapidly demolished ; 
and at length, in the year 1289, the city of Tripoli, the prin- 
cipal appanage of the kingdom of Jerusalem, was taken, its 
houses were consumed by fire, its works dismantled, and its 
inhabitants massacred, or sold into slavery. 

Acre now remained the sole possession of the Latins, in 
the country where their sovereignty had been acknowledged 
daring the lapse of nearly two centuries. A short peace 
granted to Henry the Second of Cyprus, the nominal king 
of the Holy Land, postponed its fate, and the utter abolition 
of Christian authority in Syria, a few years longer. Within 
its walls were crowded the wretched remains of those prin- 
cipalities which had been won by the valour of European 
soldiers. A reinforcement of unprincipled Italians only 
added to the disorder which already prevailed in the town, 
and increased the number of offences by which they were 
daily accumulating upon their heads the vengeance of the 
fanatical Mamlouks, who longed for an opportunity to 
attack them. 

At length, in the month of April, 1291, a force which has 
been estimated at more than 200,000 men, issued from 
Egypt, and encamped on the Plain of Acre. Most of the 
inhabitants made their escape by sea from the horrors of 
the impending siege ; the defence of the place being in- 
trusted to about 12,000 good soldiers, belonging chiefly to 
the several orders of religious knighthood. The command 
was offered to the Grand Master of the Templars, who,, 
being prevailed upon to accept, discharged its duties with 
firmness and military skill. But the Mamlouks were 
not inferior in valour, and their numbers were irresistible. 
Prodigies of bravery were displayed on both sides : the 
assailants threw themselves, with desperate resolution, into 
the breach, from whence they were repeatedly driven back 
at the point of the sword, or hurled headlong into the ditch* 

B b 



290 THE HISTORY OF PALESTINE 



But the sultan was prodigal of blood, and had vowed to 
humble the IVazarenes who dared to dispute his authority. 
The walls, accordingly, after having been several times lost 
and won, were at length finally occupied by the Tartars 
and Mamlouks, who obeyed the sovereign of Egypt, and 
the crescent was at that moment elevated to a place which 
it has continued to occupy during the greater part of five 
centuries. Struck with terror, the few small towns, which 
till this period had been allotted to the Christians surren- 
dered at the first summons, and saw their inhabitants 
doomed either to death or to a hopeless Captivity. In one 
word, the Holy Land, which since the days of Godfrey had 
cost to Christendom so much anxiety, blood, and treasure, 
was now lost ; the sacred walls of Jerusalem were aban- 
doned to infidels ; and henceforth the disciple of Christ was 
doomed to purchase permission to visit the interesting 
scenes consecrated by the events recorded in the gospel. 

The titular crown of Palestine was worn for the last 
time by Hugh the Great, the descendant of Hugh, king of 
Cyprus, and Alice, who was the daughter of Mary and 
John de Brienne. At a later period, this empty honour was 
claimed by the house of Sicily, in right of Charles, count of 
Anjou and brother of Louis IX., who was thought to unite 
in his own person the issue of the King of Cyprus and of 
the Princess Mary, the daughter of Frederick, sovereign of 
Antioch. The knights of St. John of Jerusalem, since de- 
nominated knights of Rhodes and Malta, and the Teutonic 
knights, the conquerors of the north of Europe and founders 
of the kingdom of Prussia, are now the only remains of 
those Crusaders vho struck terror into Africa and Asia, and 
seized the thrones of Jerusalem, Cyprus, and Constantinople. 

Although no expedition from the Christian states reached 
the Holy Land after the close of the thirteenth century, the 
fire which had so long warmed the hearts of the Crusaders 
was not entirely extinguished in several parts of Europe. 
Edward the First of England, for example, still cherished 
the hope of opening the gates of Jerusalem, or of leaving 
his bones in the sacred dust of Palestine. A similar feeling 
animated the monarch of France ; while the pope, who de- 
rived manifold advantages from the prosecution of such 
w r ars, summoned councils, issued pastoral letters, and em- 
ployed preachers, as in the days that were past. But 



FROM THE FALL OF JERUSALEM. 291 



dissensions at home during the first half of the fourteenth 
century, and the general conviction of hopelessness which 
had seized the public mind respecting all armaments against 
the Moslems, occasioned the failure of every attempt to 
unite once more the powers of Christendom in the common 
cause. 

In the following century, the ascendency of the Turks, 
not only in the East, but on the banks of the Danube and 
the northern shores of the Mediterranean, compelled the 
people of Europe to act on the defensive. The fall of the 
Grecian empire, too, rendered the intercourse with Syria at 
once more difficult and dangerous. Egypt in like manner 
was shut against the Christians, being subjected to the 
same yoke which pressed so heavily on the western parts 
of Asia. Hence, during more than two centuries a cloud 
hung over the affairs of Palestine, which we in vain attempt 
to penetrate. Suffice it to remark, that it remained subject 
to the Mamlouk sultans of Egypt till the year 13S2, when 
they were dispossessed by a body of Circassians, who in- 
vaded and overran the country. Upon the expulsion of 
these barbarians, it acknowledged again the government of 
Cairo, under which it continued until the period of the 
more formidable irruption of the Mogul Tartars, led by the 
celebrated Tamerlane. At his death the Holy Land was 
once more annexed to Egypt as a province; but in 1516, 
Selim the Ninth, emperor of the Othman Turks, carried 
his victorious arms from the Euphrates to the Libyan 
Desert, involving in one general conquest all the interven- 
ing states. More than three hundred years have that peo- 
ple exercised a dominion over the land of Judea, varied 
only by intervals of rebellion on the part of governors who 
wished to assert their independence, or by wars among the 
different pashas, who, in defiance of the supreme authority, 
have from time to time quarrelled about its spoils. 

From the period at which the Crusaders were expelled 
from Syria down to the middle of the last century, we are 
chieflv indebted for our knowledge of the Holy Land to the 
pilgrims whom religious motives induced to brave all the 
perils and extortions to which Franks were exposed under 
the Turkish government. The faith of the Christians sur- 
vived their arms at Jerusalem, and was found within the 
sacred walls long after every European soldier had disap* 



292 



THE HISTORY OF PALESTINE 



peared. The Jacobite, Armenian, and Abyssinian believers 
were allowed to cling to those memorials of redemption 
which have at all times given so great an interest to the 
localities of Palestine ; and occasionally a member of the 
Latin Church had the good fortune to enter the gates of 
the city in disguise, and was permitted to offer up his 
prayers at the side of the Holy Sepulchre. In 1432, when 
La Broquiere undertook his pilgrimage into the East, there 
were only two French monks in Jerusalem, who were held 
in the most cruel thraldom. 

The increasing intercourse between the Turks at Con- 
stantinople and the governments of Europe gradually pro- 
duced a more tolerant spirit among the former, and paved 
the way for a lasting accommodation in favour of the Chris- 
tians in Palestine. We find, accordingly, that in the year 
1507, when Baumgarten travelled in Syria, there was at 
Jerusalem a monastery cf Franciscans, who possessed in- 
fluence sufficient to secure his personal safety, and even to 
provide for his comfort under their own roof. At a some- 
what later period, the Moslem rulers began to consider the 
reception of pilgrims as a regular source of revenue ; selling 
their protection at a high price, and even creating dangers 
in order to render that protection indispensable. The 
Christians, meantime, rose by degrees from the state of 
depression and contumely into which they were sunk by 
the conquerors of the Grecian empire. They were allowed 
to nominate patriarchs for the due administration of eccle- 
siastical affairs, and to practise all the rites of their religion, 
provided they did not insult the established faith, — a condi- 
tion of things which, with such changes as have been occa- 
sioned by foreign war or the temper of individual governors, 
has been perpetuated to the present day. 

As the civil history of Palestine for three centuries is 
nothing more than a relation of the broils, the insurrections, 
the massacres, and changes of dynasty which have period- 
ically shaken the Turkish empire in Europe as well as in 
Asia, we willingly pass over it, as we thereby only refrain 
from a mere recapitulation of names and dates which could 
not have the slightest interest for any class of readers. At 
the close of the eighteenth century, however, its affairs 
assumed a new importance. Napoleon Bonaparte, whose 
views of dominion were limited only by the bounds of the 



FROM THE FALL OF JERUSALEM. 293 



civilized world, imagined that, by the conquest of Egypt 
and Syria, he should open for himself a path into the 
remoter provinces of the Asiatic continent, and perhaps 
establish his power on either bank of the Ganges. 

It was in the spring of 1799 that the French general, 
who had been informed of certain preparations against him 
in the pashalic of Acre, resolved to cross the desert which 
divides Egypt from Palestine at the head of ten thousand 
chosen men. El Arish soon fell into his hands, the garrison 
of which were permitted to retire on condition that they 
should not serve again during the war. Gaza likewise 
yielded without much opposition to the overwhelming force 
by which it was attacked. Jaffa set the first example of a 
vigorous resistance ; the slaughter was tremendous ; and 
Bonaparte, to intimidate other towns from showing a simi- 
lar spirit, gave it up to plunder and the other excesses of 
an enraged soldiery, A more melancholy scene followed, — 
the massacre of nearly four thousand prisoners who had 
laid down their arms. Napoleon alleged, that these were 
the very individuals who had given their parole at El Arish, 
and had violated their faith by appearing against him in 
the fortress which had just fallen. On this pretext he com- 
manded them all to be put to death, and thereby brought a 
stain upon his reputation which no casuistry on the part 
of his admirers, and no considerations of expediency, mili- 
tary or political, will ever succeed in removing.* 

* The motives for the massacre of Jaffa are given by Bourrienne in so 
impartial a manner, that we are inclined to believe he has given a true 
transcript of his master's mind. "Bonaparte sent his aids-de-camp, 
Beauharnais and Crosier, to appease as far as possible the fury of the 
soldiery, to examine what passed, and to report. They learned that a 
numerous detachment of the garrison had retired into a strong position, 
where large buildings surrounded a courtyard. This court they entered, 
displaying the scarfs which marked their rank. The Albanians and 
Arnauts, composing nearly the entire of these refugees, cried out from 
the windows that they wished to surrender, on condition their lives were 
spared ; if not, threatening to fire upon the officers, and to defend them- 
selves to the last extremity. The young men conceived they ought, and 
had power, to accede to the demand, in opposition to the sentence of 
death pronounced against the garrison of every place taken by assault. 
I was walking with General Bonaparte before his tent when these pris- 
oners, in two columns, amounting to about four thousand men, were 
marcnei into the camp. When he beheld the mass of men arrive, and 
before seeiag the aids-de-camp, he turned to me with an expression of 
consternation, ' What would they have me to do with these ? Have I 
provisions to feed them; ships to transport them either to Egypt or 

B b 2 



294 THE HISTORY OF PALESTINE 



Acre, so frequently mentioned in the History of the 
Crusades, was again doomed to receive a fatal celebrity 
from a most sanguinary and protracted siege. Achmet 
Djezzar, the pasha of that division of Palestine which 
stretches from the borders of Egypt to the Gulf of Sidon, 
had thrown himself into this fortress with a considerable 
army, determined to defend it to the last extremity. After 
failing in an attempt to bribe the Mussulman chief, Bona- 
parte made preparations for the attack, with his usual skill 
and activity ; resolving to carry the place by assault before 
the Turkish government could send certain supplies of food 
and ammunition, which he knew were expected by the be- 
sieged. But his design was frustrated by the presence of a 
British squadron under Sir Sidney Smith, who, in the first 
instance, captured a convoy of guns and stores forwarded 
from Egypt, and then employed them against him, by erect- 
ing batteries onshore. Notwithstanding these inauspicious 
circumstances, Napoleon opened his trenches on the 18th 
of March, in the firm conviction that the Turkish garrison 
could not long resist the fury of his onset and the skill of 
his engineers. " On that little town," said he, to one of 
his generals, as they were standing together on an eminence 
which still bears the name of Richard Cceur de Lion, " on 
that little town depends the fate of the East. Behold the 
key of Constantinople or of India !" 

At the end of ten days a breach was effected, by which 
the French made their first attempt to reduce the towers of 

France ? How the devil could they play me this trick !' The two aids- 
de-camp, on their arrival and explanations, received the strongest repri- 
mands. To their defence, namely, that they were alone amid numerous 
enemies, and that he had recommended to them to appease the slaughter, 
he replied, in the sternest tone, * Yes, without doubt, the slaughter of 
women, children, old men, the peaceable inhabitants bu' not of armed 
soldiers : you ought to have braved death, and not brought these to me. 
What would you have me do with them V Hut the evil was done. Four 
thousand men were there — their fate must be determined. The prisoners 
were made to sit down, huddled together before the tents, their hands 
being bound behind them. A gloomy rage was depicted in every linea- 
ment. A council was held in the general's tent," <kc. 

On the third day an order was issued that the prisoners should be 
shot, — an order which was literally executed on four thousand men. 
" The atrocious crime," says M. Bourrienne, " makes me yet shudder 
when I think of it, as when it passed before me. All that can be ima- 
gined of fearful on this day of blood would fall short of the reality 
Memoirs^ vol. i. p. 156. 



FROM THE FALL OF JERUSALEM. 295 



Acre. Their assault was conducted with so much firmness 
and spirit, that for a moment the garrison was overpowered, 
and the town seemed iost. The pasha, renowned for his 
personal courage, threw himself into the thickest body of 
the combatants, and at length, by strength of hand and the 
most heroic example, rallied his troops and drove the enemy 
from the walls. The loss of the French was great, and the 
disappointment of their leader extreme. Napoleon was 
deeply mortified when he saw his finest regiments pursued 
to their lines by English sailors and undisciplined Turks, 
who even proceeded to destroy their intrenchments. 

Bourrienne relates, that during the assault of the 8th of 
May more than two hundred men penetrated into the city. 
Already the shout of victory was raised ; but the breach, 
taken in flank by the Turks, could not be entered with suf- 
ficient promptitude, and the party was left without support. 
The streets were barricaded ; the very women were running 
about thro win o- dust into the air, and excitino- the inhabit- 
ants by cries and howling ; all contributed to render un- 
availing this short occupation by a handful of men, who, 
finding themselves alone, regained the breach by a retro- 
grade movement ; but not before many had fallen. 

The want of proper means for forming a siege, and per- 
haps the contempt which he entertained for barbarians, oc- 
casioned a great deficiency in the works raised before Acre. 
Bonaparte was not ignorant of the disadvantages under 
which his men laboured from the cause now assigned ; and 
it was principally for this reason that he trusted more to 
the bayonet than to the mortar or cannon. He repeated 
his assaults day after day, till the ditch was filled with dead 
and wounded soldiers. His grenadiers at length felt greater 
horror at walking over the bodies of their comrades than at 
encountering the tremendous discharges of large and small 
shot to which the latter had fallen victims. 

On the 21st of May, after sixty days of ineffectual labour 
under a burning sun, Napoleon ordered a last assault on 
the obstinate garrison of Ptolemais, which had barred his 
path to the accomplishment of the most splendid conquests. 
This attempt was not less fruitless than those which had 
preceded it, and was attended with the loss of many brave 
warriors. A fleet was at hand to reinforce Djezzar with 
mea and arms ; the French, on the contrary, were perishing 



296 



THE HISTORY OF PALESTINE 



under the plague, which had already found its way into 
their ranks, and were, besides, constantly threatened by 
swarms of Arabs and Mamlouks, who had assembled in 
the neighbouring mountains. His failure in this effort, ac- 
cordingly, dictated the necessity of a speedy retreat towards 
Egypt, where his affairs continued to enjoy some degree of 
prosperity, and in the magazines of which he might still 
find the means of restoring the health and vigour of his 
troops. 

The siege of Acre, says the biographer of Bonaparte, 
cost nearly three thousand men in killed, and of such as 
died of the plague and their wounds. Had there been less 
precipitation in the attack, and had the advances been con- 
ducted according to the rules of art, the town, says he, 
could not have held out three days ; and one assault such 
as that of the 8th of May would have sufficed. But he 
admits that it would have been wiser in their situation, 
destitute as they w T ere of heavy artillery and provisions, 
while the place was plentifully supplied and in active com- 
munication with the English and Ottoman fleets, not to 
have undertaken the siege at all. In the bulletins, he adds, 
always so veracious, the loss of the French is estimated at 
five hundred killed and a thousand wounded ; while that of 
the enemy is augmented to fifteen thousand. These docu- 
ments are doubtless curious pieces for history, — certainly 
not because they are true. Bonaparte, however, attached 
the greatest importance to these relations, which were 
always drawn up or corrected by himself.* 

The reader may not be displeased to consider the motives 
which induced Napoleon to persevere so long in the siege 
of Acre. u I see that this paltry town has cost me many 
men, and occupies much time ; but things have gone too 
far not to risk a last effort. If we succeed, it is to be hoped 
we shall find in that place the treasures of the pasha, and 
arms for three hundred thousand men. I will raise and 
arm the whole of Syria, which is already greatly exaspe- 
rated by the cruelty of Djezzar, for whose^ fall you have 
seen the people supplicate Heaven at every assault. I ad- 
vance upon Damascus and Aleppo ; I recruit my army by 
marching into every country where discontent prevails ; I 



* Memoirs of Napoleon Bonaparte, vol. i. p. 163. 



FROM THE FALL OF JERUSALEM. 297 



announce to the people the abolition of slavery, and of the 
tyrannical government of the pashas ; I arrive at Constan- 
tinople with armed masses ; I overturn the dominion of the 
Mussulman ; I found in the East anew and mighty empire, 
which shall fix my position with posterity ; and perhaps I 
return to Paris by Adrianople or Vienna, having annihilated 
the house of Austria."* 

Whatever accuracy there may be in these reminiscences, 
there is no doubt that Napoleon frequently remarked, in 
reference to Acre, " The fate of the East is in that place." 
Nor was this observation made at random ; for had the 
French subdued Djezzar, and buried his army in the ruins 
of the fortress, the whole of Palestine and Syria would 
have submitted to their dominion. He expected, besides, a 
cordial reception from the Druses, those warlike and semi- 
barbarous tribes who inhabit the valleys of Libanus, and 
who, like all the other subjects of the Ottoman government, 
had felt the pressure of the pasha's tyranny. His eyes 
were likewise turned towards the Jews, who, in every com- 
motion which affects Syria, are accustomed to look for the 
indications of that happy change destined, in the eye of their 
faith, to restore the kingdom to Israel in the latter days. 
It was not, indeed, till a somewhat later period that he 
openly extended his protection to the descendants of Abra- 
ham ; but it is not improbable that the notion had occurred 
to him during his Eastern campaigns of employing them for 
the purpose of establishing an independent sovereignty in 
Palestine, devoted to his ulterior views in the countries be- 
yond the Euphrates. 

During the siege of Acre, the several detachments of the 
French army stationed in Galilee were attacked by a pow- 
erful Mussulman force, which had assembled in the adjoin- 
ing mountains. Junot, who was induced to risk an engage- 
ment near Nazareth, w 7 ould have been cut in pieces by the 
Mamlouk cavalry, had not Bonaparte hastened to his assist- 
ance. We have already alluded to the masterly conduct of 
Kleber, who, at the head of a few hundred men, kept the 
field a whole day against an overwhelming mass of horsemen 
that attacked his party near Mount Tabor. On this occa- 
sion, too, the speedy aid of Napoleon secured a victory, and 
scattered the enemy's troops over the face of the desert. 



Memoirs of Napoleon Bonaparte, vol. i. p. 161. 



298 



THE HISTORY OF PALESTINE 



But he found, upon his return to the trenches, that the same 
men whose columns dissipated like smoke before his bat- 
talions on the plain were extremely formidable behind an 
armed wall, and that all the skill of his engineers and the 
bravery of his veterans were of no avail when opposed by 
the savage courage of Turks directed by European officers 
and supported by English seamen. 

The sufferings which the French endured in their retreat 
across the desert were very great, and afforded constant 
exercise for the self-possession and equanimity of their 
leader. "A fearful journey," says one of their number, 
" was yet before us. Some of the wounded were carried 
in litters, and the rest on camels and mules. A devouring 
thirst, the total want of water, an excessive heat, a fatiguing 
march among scorching sand-hills, demoralized the men ; 
a most cruel selfishness, the most unfeeling indifference, 
took place of every generous or humane sentiment. I have 
seen thrown from the litters officers with amputated limbs, 
whose conveyance had been ordered, and who had them- 
selves given money as a recompense for the fatigue. I have 
beheld abandoned among the wheatlields soldiers who had 
lost their legs or arms, wounded men, and patients supposed 
to be affected with the plague. Our march was lighted up 
by torches kindled for the purpose of setting on fire towns, 
hamlets, and the rich crops with which the earth was cov- 
ered. The whole country was in flames. It seemed as if 
we found a solace in this extent of mischief for our own 
reverses and sufferings. We were surrounded only by the 
dying, by plunderers, by incendiaries. Wretched beings at 
the point of death, thrown by the wayside, continued to 
call with feeble voice, * I have not the plague, I am but 
wounded ;* and, to convince those that passed, they might 
be seen tearing open their real wounds, or inflicting new 
ones. Nobody believed them. It was the interest of all not 
to believe. Comrades would say, * He is done for now ; his 
march is over then pass on, look to themselves, and feel 
satisfied. The sun, in all his splendour under that beautiful 
sky, was obscured by the smoke of continual conflagration. 
We had the sea on our right ; on our left and behind us lay 
the desert which we had made ; before were the sufferings 
and privations that awaited us."* 



* Memoirs of Napoleon Bonaoarte, vol. i. p. 168. 



FROM THE FALL OF JERUSALEM. 29& 



Since the departure of the French no event has occurred 
to give any interest to the history of Palestine. The Mus- 
sulman instantly resumed his power, which for a time he 
appeared determined to exercise with a strong arm and with 
liftle forbearance towards the Franks, from the terror of 
whose might he had just escaped. But the ascendency of 
Europe, as a great assemblage of Christian states, checks 
the intolerance of the Turk, and imposes upon him the obli- 
gations of a more liberal policy. Hence we may confidently 
assert, that although the members of the Greek and Latin 
churches in Syria are severely taxed, they are not perse- 
cuted. They are compelled to pay heavily for the privilege 
of exercising the rites of their worship, and of enjoying that 
freedom of conscience which is the natural inheritance of 
every human being ; but their property is held sacred, and 
their personal security is not endangered, provided they 
have the prudence to rest satisfied with a simple connivance 
or bare permission in things relating to their faith* 

The actual state of the Holy Land may be known with 
sufficient accuracy from the topographical description which 
we have given in a former chapter. With regard, again, to 
the civil government of the country, it has been remarked 
that the pashas are so frequently changed, or so often at 
war with each other, that the jurisdiction of the magistrates 
in cities is so undefined, and the hereditary or assumed 
rights of the sheiks of particular districts are so various, 
that it is extremely difficult to discover any settled rule by 
which the administration is conducted. The whole Turkish 
empire, indeed, has the appearance of being so precariously 
balanced, that the slightest movement within or from 
without seems likely to overturn it. Everywhere is abso- 
lute power seen stretched beyond the limits of all apparent 
control, but finding, nevertheless, a counteracting principle 
in that extreme degree of acuteness to which the instinct of 
self-preservation is sharpened by the constant apprehension 
of injury. Hence springs that conflict between force and 
fraud, not always visible, but always operating, which char- 
acterizes society in all despotic countries. 

In the minute subdivision of power, which in all cases 
partakes of the absolute nature of the supreme government, 
the traveller is often reminded of patriarchal times, when 
there were found judges, and even kings, exercising a sepa- 



300 THE HISTORY OF PALESTINE 



rate dominion at the distance of a short journey from one 
another. As an instance of this, we may mention, that on 
the road from Jerusalem to Sannour, by way of Nablous, 
there are no fewer than three governors of cities, all of whom 
claim the honours of independent sovereigns ; for, although 
they acknowledge a nominal superiority in the Pasha of 
Damascus, they exclude his jurisdiction in all cases where 
he does not enforce his authority at the head of his troops. 
The same affectation of independence descends to the sheiks 
of villages, who, aware of the precarious tenure by which 
their masters remain in office, are disposed to treat their 
orders with contempt. Like them, too, they turn to their 
personal advantage the power of imposition and extortion 
which belongs to every one who is clothed with official rank 
in Syria. They sell justice and protection; and in this 
market, as in all others, he who offers- the best price is cer- 
tain to obtain the largest share of the commodity.* 

This chapter would not be complete were we to omit all 
allusion to the Jews, the ancient inhabitants of Palestine. 
Their number, according to a statement lately published in 
Germany, amounts to between three and four millions, scat- 
tered over the face of the whole earth, but still maintaining 
the same laws which their ancestors received from their in- 
spired legislator more than three thousand years age In 
Europe there are nearly two millions, enjoying different 
privileges according to the spirit of the several governments ; 
in Asia, the estimate exceeds seven hundred thousand ; in 
Africa, more than half a million ; and in America, about ten 
thousand. It is supposed, however, on good grounds, that 
the Jewish population on both sides of Mount Taurus is 
considerably greater than is here given, and that their gross 
number does not fall much short of five millions.! 

In Palestine of late years they have greatly increased. It 
is said ttiat not fewer than ten thousand inhabit Saphet and 
Jerusalem, and that in their worship they still sing those 
pathetic hymns which their manifold tribulations have in- 
spired ; bewailing, amid the ruins of their ancient capital, 
the fallen city and the desolate tribes. In Persia, one of 
them addressed a Christian missionary in these affecting 

* See Jowett's Christian Researches in Syria and the Holy Land, 
p. 315. 

f Weimar, Geographical Ephemerides ; and History of the Jews, vol. 
iii. p. 332. 



FROM THE FALL OF JERUSALEM. 301 



words — " I have travelled far ; the Jews are everywhere 
princes in comparison with those in the land of Iran. 
Heavy is our captivity, heavy is our burden, heavy is our 
slavery ; anxiously we wait for redemption." 

History, says an eloquent writer, is the record of the past ; 
it presumes not to raise the mysterious veil which the Al- 
mighty has spread over the future. The destinies of this 
wonderful people, as of all mankind, are in the hands of the 
all-wise Ruler of the universe ; his decrees will certainly be 
accomplished ; his truth, his goodness, and his wisdom will 
be clearly vindicated. This, however, we may venture to 
assert, that true religion will advance with the dissemination 
of sound and useful knowledge. The more enlightened the 
Jew becomes, the more incredible will it appear to him that 
the gracious Father of the whole human race intended an 
exclusive faith, a creed confined to one family, to be perma- 
nent ; and the more evident also will it appear to him, that 
a religion which embraces within the sphere of its benevo- 
lence all the kindreds and languages of the earth is alone 
adapted to an improved and civilized age.* 

We presume not to expound the signs of the times, nor 
to see farther than we are necessarily led by the course of 
events ; but it is impossible not to be struck with the aspect 
of that grandest of all moral phenomena which is suspended 
Upon the history and actual condition of the sons of Jacob. 
At this moment they are nearly as numerous as when David 
swayed the sceptre of the Twelve Tribes ; their expecta- 
tions are the same, their longings are the same ; and on 
whatever part of the earth's surface they have their abode, 
their eyes and their faith are. all pointed in the same direc- 
tion, — to the land of their fathers and the holy city where 
they worshipped. Though rejected by God and persecuted 
by man, they have not once, during eighteen hundred long 
years, ceased to repose confidence in the promises made by 
Jehovah to the founders of their nation ; and although the 
heart has often been sick and the spirit faint, they have 
never relinquished the hope of that bright reversion in the 
latter days which is once more to establish the Lord's house 
on the top of the mountains, and to make Jerusalem the 
glory of the whole world. 

* History of the Jews, vol. iii. p. 388. 
Cc 



302 NATURAL HISTORY OF PALESTINE, 



CHAPTER IX. 

The Natural History of Palestine. 

Travellers too much neglect Natural Histor)'— Maundrell, Hasselquisf, 
Clarke — Geology — Syrian Chain — Libanus — Calcareous Rocks — 
Granite— Trap — Volcanic Remains — Chalk — Marine Exuviae— Pre- 
cious Stones — Meteorology — Climate of Palestine— Winds — Thun- 
der— Clouds- Waterspouts—Ignis Fatuus — Zoology— Scripture Ani- 
mals—The Hart— The Roebuck— Fallow-deer— Wild Goat— Pygarg 
— Wild Ox— Chamois — Unicorn — W T ild Ass— Wild Goats of the Rock 
^-Saphan, or Coney — Mouse— Porcupine— Jerboa— Mole — Bat — Birds 
— Eagle — Ossifrage — Ospray — Vulture — Kite— Raven — Owl — Night- 
hawk— Cuckoo— Hawk— Little Owl— Cormorant — Great Owl — Swan 
— Pelican — Gier Eagle — Stork — Heron — Lapwing — Hoopoe — Amphi- 
bia and Reptiles — Serpents known to the Hebrews — Ephe — Che- 
phir — Acshub — Pethen — Tzeboa — Tzimmaon — Tzepho — Kippos — 
Shephiphon — Shachal— Saraph, tbe Flying Serpent — Cockatrice' Eggs 
— The Scorpion — Sea mons ers, or Seals — Fruits and Plants — Ve- 
getable Productions of Palestine — The Fig-tree— Palm — Olive— Cedars 
of Libanus — Wild Grapes— Balsam of Aaron — Thorn of Christ. 

Every one who writes on the Holy Land has occasion 
to regret that travellers in general have paid so little atten- 
tion to its geological structure and natural productions. 
Maundrell, it is true, was not entirely destitute of physical 
science ; but the few remarks which he makes are extremely 
vague and unconnected, and, not being expressed in the 
language of system, throw very little light on the researches 
of the natural philosopher or the geologist. Hasselquist 
had more professional learning, and has accordingly con- 
tributed more than any of his predecessors to our acquaint- 
ance with Palestine, viewed in its relations to the animal, 
the vegetable, and the mineral kingdoms. Still the reader 
of his Voyages and Travels in the Levant cannot fail to 
peroeive, that some of the branches of natural knowledge, 
which are now cultivated with the greatest care, were in 
his day very little improved ; and more especially, that they 
were deficient in accuracy of description and distinctness of 
arrangement. Dr. Clarke's observations are perhaps more 
scientific than those of the Swedish naturalist just named, 
and particularly in the departments of mineralogy and geology 



NATURAL HISTORY OF PALESTINE. 303 



to which he had devoted a large share of his attention. But 
even in his works we look in vain for a satisfactory treatise 
on the mountain-rocks of Palestine, on the geognostic form- 
ation of that interesting part of Western Asia, or on the 
fossil treasures which its strata are understood to envelop. 
We are therefore reduced to the necessity of collecting from 
various authors, belonging to different countries and succes- 
sive ages, the scattered notices which appear in their works, 
and of arranging them according to a plan most likely to 
suit the comprehension of the common reader. 



SECTION I. GEOLOGY. 

At first view it would appear that the ridges of Pales- 
tine are all a ramification of Mount Taurus. But the 
proper Syrian chain begins on the south of Antioch, at the 
huge peak of Casius, which shoots up to the heavens its 
tapering summit, covered with thick forests. The same 
chain, under various names, follows the direction of the 
eastern shore of the Mediterranean, at no greater distance, 
generally speaking, than twenty-four miles from its waters. 
Mount Libanus forms its most elevated summit. At length 
it is divided into two branches, of which the one looks west- 
ward to the sea, the other, which bounds the Plain of 
Damascus, verges in the direction of the desert and the 
banks of the Euphrates. Hermon, whose lofty top con- 
denses the moisture of the atmosphere, and gives rise to the 
dews so much celebrated in the Sacred Writings, stands 
between Heliopolis and the capital of Syria. The latter 
ridge received from the Greeks the denomination of Anti- 
Libanus, — a name unknown among the natives, and which, 
being employed somewhat arbitrarily by historians and topo- 
graphers, has occasioned considerable obscurity in their 
writings. 

The hills in this part of Syria are composed of a calca- 
reous rock having a whitish colour, is extremely hard, and 
which rings in the ear when smartly struck with a hammer. 
The same description applies to the masses that surround 
Jerusalem, which on the one hand stretch to the River 
Jordan,, and on the other extend to the Plain of Acre and 



304 NATURAL HISTORY OF PALESTINE. 



Jaffa. Like all limestone strata, they present a great num« 
ber of caverns, to which, as places of retreat, frequent 
allusion is made in the books of Samuel and of the Kings. 
There is one near Damascus, capable of containing four 
thousand men ; and it must have been in a similar recess 
that David and his men encountered the ill-fated Saul when 
pursued by him on the hills of the wild goats. 

The mountains that skirt the Valley of the Dead Sea 
present granite and those other rocks which, according to 
the system of Werner, characterize the oldest or primitive 
formation. Mount Sinai is a member of the same group, 
and exhibits mineral qualities of a similar nature, extend- 
ing to a certain distance on both sides of the Arabian Gulf. 
It is probable that this region, at a remote epoch, was the 
theatre of immense volcanoes, the effects of which may still 
be traced along the banks of the Lower Jordan, and more 
especially in the lake itself. The warm baths at Tabaria 
show that the same cause still exists, although much re- 
stricted in its operation, — an inference which is amply con- 
firmed by the lavas, the bitumen, and pumice which continue 
to be thrown ashore by the waves of Asphaltites. 

Dr. Clarke remarks, that in the neighbourhood of Cana 
there are several basaltic appearances. The extremities 
of columns, prismatically formed, penetrated the surface of 
the soil, so as to render the path very rough and unpleasant. 
These marks of regular or of irregular crystallization 
generally denote, according to his opinion, the vicinity of 
water lying beneath their level. The traveller, having passed 
over a series of successive plains, resembling in their grada- 
tion the order of a staircase, observes, as he descends to the 
inferior stratum upon which the water rests, that where 
rocks are disclosed the symptoms of crystallization have 
taken place, and then the prismatic configuration is com- 
monly denoted basaltic Such an appearance, therefore, 
in the approach to the Lake of Tiberias is only a parallel 
to similar phenomena exhibited by rocks near the Lakes of 
Locarno and Bolsenna in Italy, by those of the Wenner 
Lake in Sweden, by the bed of the Rhine near Cologne in 
Germany, by the Valley of Ronca in the territory of Verona, 
by the Pont de Bridon in the state of Venice, and by nume- 
rous other examples in the same country. A corresponding 
effect is produced on a small scale on the southern declivity 



NATURAL HISTORY OF PALESTINE. 305 



of Arthur Seat, near Edinburgh, where the hill overhangs 
the Lake of Duddingstone ; and numerous other instances 
are known to occur in the islands which lie between the 
coast of Ireland and Norway, as well as Spain, Portugal, 
Arabia, and India. 

When these crystals have obtained a certain regularity 
of structure, the form is often hexagonal, or six-sided, resem- 
bling particular kinds of spar, and the emerald. Patrin, dur- 
ing his travels in the deserts of Oriental Tartary, discovered 
when breaking the Asiatic emerald, if fresh taken from the 
matrix, not only the same alternate concave and convex 
fractures which sometimes characterize the horizontal fis- 
sures of basaltic pillars, but also the concentric layers which 
denote concretionary formation. It is hardly possible to 
have a more striking proof of coincidence, resulting from 
similarity of structure, in two substances otherwise re- 
markably distinguished from each other. In this state 
science remains at present, concerning an appearance in 
nature which exhibits nothing more than the common pro- 
cess of crystallization upon a larger scale than has usually 
^excited attention. Suffice it to remark, that such a phe- 
nomenon is very frequent in the vicinity of very ancient 
Jakes, in the bed of all considerable rivers, or by the borders 
of the ocean.* 

In a country where there are so many traces of volcanic 
action, the rocks of the lower levels cannot fail to bear 
marks of their origin. Hasselquist relates, that the Hill 
of Tiberias, out of which issues the fountain whence the 
baths are supplied, consists of a black and brittle sulphur- 
ous stone, which is only to be found in large masses in that 
neighbourhood, though it is commonly met with in rolled 
specimens on the shores of the Dead Sea, and in other 
parts of the valley. The sediment deposited by the water 
is also black, as thick as paste, smells strongly of sulphur, 
and is covered with two skins or cuticles, of which the lower 
is of a fine dark-green, and the uppermost of a light rusty 
colour. At the mouth of the outlet, where the stream 
formed little cascades over the stones, the first cuticle alone 
was found, and so much resembled a conferva, that one 
©light have taken it for a vegetable production ; but nearer 

* See Clarke's Travels, vol. iv. p. 191, 

Cc3 



306 NATURAL HISTORY OF PALESTINE 



the river, where the current became stagnant, both skins 
were visible, the yellow on the surface, and under it the 
green.* 

There are observed, in the same hollow, small portions 
of quartz incrusted with an impure salt, and nodules of clay 
extremely compact. Near the edge of the valley there lie 
scattered on the sand considerable portions of flinty slate ; 
and amid the common clay, which forms the basis of the 
soil, are perpendicular layers of a lamellated brown argil, 
assuming, as it were, the slaty structure. Dr. Clarke 
noticed among the pebbles near the Lake of Tiberias pieces 
of a porous rock resembling the substance called toadstone 
in England ; its cavities were filled with zeolite. Native 
gold was likewise found there, but the quantity was so 
small as not to draw from the travellers a suitable degree 
of attention. 

The Vale of the Asphaltites is further remarkable for a 
species of limestone called the fetid, the smell of which, as 
its name imports, is extremely offensive. It is still manu? 
factured in the East into amulets, and worn as a specific 
against the plague ; and that a similar superstition existed 
in regard to this stone in very early ages is rendered mani? 
fest by the circumstance, that charms made of the same sub? 
stance were found in the subterranean chambers under the 
pyramids of Sakhara in Upper Egypt. The cause of the 
fetid effluvia emitted from this rock, when partially decom? 
posed by means of friction, is now known to be connected 
with the presence of sulphuretted hydrogen. All bitu- 
minous limestone, however, does not possess this property. 
It is not uncommon in the calcareous beds called in England 
black marble, but it is by no means their characteristic. 
The fragments obtained in the valley of the Jordan have 
this savour in a high degree ; and it is admitted that the 
oriental limestone is more highly impregnated with hydro- 
sulphuret than any hitherto found in Europe. f 

According to Dr. Shaw, the upper strata of rocks on the 
hills along the coast are composed of a soft chalky substance, 
including a great variety of corals, shells, and other marine 
exuviae. Upon the Castravan mountains, near Beirout, there 

* Hasselquist's Voyages and Travels, p. 284, 
t Clarke's Travels, vol. iv. p. 223 and 307, 



NATURAL HISTORY OF PALESTINE. 307 



is a singular bed, consisting likewise of a whitish stone, but 
of the slate-kind, which unfolds in every flake of it a great 
number and variety of fishes. These, for the most part, lie 
exceedingly flat and compressed, like the fossil specimens 
of fern ; yet are, at the same time, so well preserved, that 
the smallest lineaments and fibres of their fins, scales, and 
other specific properties of structure are easily distinguished. 
Among these were some individuals of the squilla tribe, 
which, though one of the tenderest of the crustaceous 
family, had not suffered the least injury from pressure or 
friction. The heights of Carmel, too, present similar phe- 
nomena. In the chalky beds which surround its summit 
are gathered numerous hollow flints, lined in the inside with 
a variety of sparry matter, and having some resemblance to 
petrified fruit. These are commonly bestowed upon pil- 
grims, not only as curiosities, but as antidotes against seve- 
ral distempers. Those which bear a likeness to the olive, 
usually denominated " lapides Judaici," are looked upon, 
when dissolved in the juice of lemons, as an approved medi- 
cine for curing the stone and gravel, — a specific, we may 
presume, which, after the fashion of many others, operates 
upon the body through the power of the imagination.* 

The miserable condition of ignorance and neglect into 
which every thing connected with industry has fallen under 
the Turkish government, prevents us from obtaining any 
information in regard to the mineral stores of that country, 
** whose stones are iron, and out of whose hills thou may st 
dig brass." Volney indeed relates, that ores of the former 
metal abound in the mountains of Kesraoun and of the 
Druses, in other words, in the extensive range of which Li- 
banus is the principal member. Every summer the inhab- 
itants work those mines which are simply ochreous. There 
is a vague report in the district, that there was anciently a 
vein of copper near Aleppo, but it must have been long since 
abandoned. It was also mentioned to the traveller, when 
among the Druses, that a mineral was discovered which 
produced both lead and silver ; though, as such a discovery 
would have ruined the whole district by attracting the 
attention of the Turks, they made haste to destroy every 

* Travels or Observations relating to several pans of Barbary and tf# 
Levant, vol. u. p. 1W. 



308 NATURAL HISTORY OF PALEST!^. 



vestige of it. A similar feeling prevails respecting precious 
stones, — the branch of mineralogy which first gains the 
attention of a rude people. From the geological character 
of the Syrian mountains, there is no doubt that Palestine 
might boast of the topaz, the emerald, the chryso-beryl, 
several varieties of rock-crystal, and also of the finer jas- 
pers. The Sacred Writings prove that the Jews were ac- 
quainted with a considerable variety of ornamental stones, 
as may be seen in the description of the mystical city in the 
book of Revelation, of which " the twelve gates were twelve 
pearls." But the present inhabitants of Canaan, regardless 
of the natural wealth with which the hills and the valleys 
abound, trust to violence for the means of luxury, and to 
the most unprincipled extortion and robbery for their ac- 
customed revenue. From them, therefore, neither know- 
ledge nor elegance can ever be expected to receive any 
attention* 



SECTION II. METEOROLOGY. 



Under this head we include the usual properties of the 
atmosphere which minister to health and vegetation, for it 
has been justly remarked that Syria has three climates. 
The summits of Libanus, for instance, covered with snow, 
diffuse a salubrious coolness in the interior ; the flat situa- 
tions, on the contrary, especially those which stretch along 
the line of the coast, are constantly subjected to heat, 
accompanied with great humidity ; while the adjoining 
plains of the desert are scorched by the rays of a burning 
sun. The seasons and the productions, of course, undergo 
a corresponding variation. In the mountains the months 
of spring and summer very nearly coincide with those in the 
southern parts of Europe ; and the winter, which lasts 
from November till March, is sharp and rigorous. No 
year passes without snow, which often covers the surface 
of the ground to the depth of several feet during many 
weeks. The spring and autumn are agreeable, and the 
summer by no means oppressive. But in the plains, on the 
other hand, as soon as the sun has passed the equator, a 
sudden transition takes place to an overpowering heat, 



NATURAL HISTORY OF PALESTINE. 309 



which continues till October. To compensate for this, 
however, the winter is so temperate that orange-trees, dates, 
bananas, and other delicate fruits grow in the open field. 
Hence, we need hardly observe that a journey of a few 
hours carries the traveller through a succession of seasons, 
and allows him a choice of climate, varying from the mild 
temperature of France to the blood-heat of India, or the 
pinching cold of Russia. 

The winds in Palestine, as in all countries which ap- 
proach the tropics, are periodical, and governed in no small 
degree by the course of the sun. About the autumnal equi- 
nox, the north-west begins to blow with frequency and 
strength. It renders the air dry, clear, and sharp ; and it 
is remarkable that on the seacoast it causes the headache, 
like the north-east wind in Egypt. We may further ob- 
serve, that it usually blows three days successively, like the 
south and south-east at the other equinox. It continues to 
prevail till November, that is, about fifty days, when it is 
followed by the west and south-west, called by the Arabs 
" the fathers of rain." In March arise the pernicious winds 
from the southern quarter, with the same circumstances as 
in Egypt ; but they become feebler as we advance towards 
the north, and are much more supportable in the mountains 
than in the low country. Their duration at each return 
varies from twenty-four hours to three days. The easterly 
winds, which come next in order, continue till June, when 
they are commonly succeeded by an inconstant breeze from 
the north. At this season the wind shifts through all the 
points every day, passing with the sun from east to south, 
and from south to west, to return by the north and recom- 
mence the same circuit. At this time, too, a local wind, 
called the land-breeze, prevails along the coast during the 
night ; it springs up after sunset, lasts till the appearance 
of the solar orb in the morning, and extends only a few 
leagues to sea. 

travellers have observed that thunder, in the lowlands 
of Palestine as well as in Egypt, is more common during the 
winter than in summer ; while in the mountains, on the 
contrary, it is more frequent in the latter season, and very 
seldom heard in the former. In both these countries it hap- 
pens oftenest in the rainy season, or about the time of the 
pguinoxes, especially the autumnal • and it is further re- 



310 NATURAL HISTORY OF PALESTINE. 



markable that it never comes from the land side, but always 
from the sea. These storms, too, generally speaking, take 
place either in the evening or morning, and rarely in the 
middle of the day. They are accompanied with violent 
showers of rain, and sometimes of uncommonly large hail, 
which, soon covering the face of the country with stagnant 
water, give rise to a copious evaporation. 

The phenomenon alluded to by the prophet Elijah is still 
found to diversify the aspect of the eastern sky. Volney 
remarks, that clouds are sometimes seen to dissolve and dis- 
perse like smoke ; while on other occasions they form in an 
instant, and from a small speck increase to a prodigious 
size. This is particularly observable at the summit of 
Lebanon ; and mariners have usually found that the ap- 
pearance of a cloud on this peak is an infallible presage of 
a westerly wind, one of the " fathers of rain" in the climate 
of Judea.* 

Waterspouts are not unfrequent along the shores of Syria, 
and more especially in the neighbourhood of Mount Carmel. 
Those observed by Dr. Shaw appeared to be so many cylin- 
ders of water falling down from the clouds ; though by the 
reflection it might be of these descending columns, or from 
the actual dropping of the fluid contained in them, they 
would sometimes, says he, appear at a distance to be sucked 
up from the sea. The theory of v/aterspouts in the present 
day does in fact admit the supposition here referred to; 
that the air, being rarefied by particular causes, has its equi- 
librium restored by the elevation of the water, on the same 
principle that mercury rises in the barometer, or the con- 
tents of a well in a common pump. The opinions of the 
learned traveller on this subject are extremely loose and un- 
scientific, and are only valuable in our times as marking a 
certain stage in the progress of meteorological inquiry. 

The same author has recorded a fact which we have not 
observed in the pages of any other tourist. In travelling 
by night, in the beginning of April, through the valleys of 
Mount Ephraim, he was attended for more than an hour by 
an ignis fatuus that displayed itself in a variety of extraor- 
dinary appearances. It was sometimes globular, and some- 
times pointed like the flame of a candle ; then it spread 

* Travels or Observations, vol. ii. p. 135. 



NATURAL HISTORY OF PALESTINE. 311 



itself so as to involve the whole company in its pale inof- 
fensive light ; after which it contracted, and suddenly dis- 
appeared. But in less than a minute it would begin again 
to exert itself as at other times, running along from one 
place to another with great swiftness, like a train of gun- 
powder set on fire ; or else it would expand itself over more 
than two or three acres of the adjacent mountains, discover- 
ing every shrub and tree that grew upon them. The atmos- 
phere from the beginning of the evening had been remark- 
ably thick and hazy ; and the dew, as felt upon the bridles, 
was unusually clammy and unctuous. In such weather 
similar luminous bodies are observed skipping about the 
masts and yards of ships, and are called by the mariners 
corpusanse, a corruption of the cuerpo santo, or sacred body, 
of the Spaniards. The same were the Castor and Pollux 
of the ancients. Some writers have attempted to account 
for these phenomena, particularly for the ignis fatuus, by 
supposing it to be occasioned by successive swarms of flying 
glowworms, or other insects of the same nature. But, as 
Dr. Shaw observes, not to perceive or feel any of these 
insects, even when the light which they produce spreads 
itself around us, should induce us to explain both this ap- 
pearance and the other on the received principle that they 
are actually meteors, or a species of natural phosphorus.* 



SECTION III. ZOOLOGY. 

In this article we shall confine our attention to such ani- 
mals as are mentioned in Holy Scripture ; our object being 
restricted to an elucidation of the natural history of Pales- 
tine as it presents itself to the common reader, and not 
according to the arrangement which might be required by 
the rules of science. 

In the fourteenth chapter of Deuteronomy, where a dis- 
tinction is made between the clean and the unclean, or 
those which might be eaten and those which were prohibited, 
we find in the former class the ox, the sheep, the goat, the 
hart, the roebuck, the fallow-deer, the wild goat, the py- 
garg, the wild ox, and the chamois. As to the domesticated 



* Travels through Syria and Egypt, vol. i. p. 313. 



312 NATURAL HISTORY OF PALESTINE. 

animals, which are common in all countries, we shall not 
waste time by exhibiting any description. The next in 
order, or " hart," is also quite familiar ; but every scholar 
knows that the Hebrew term ail is so vague in its import, 
that it has been understood to signify a tree as well as a 
quadruped. Thus the fine expression in the forty-ninth 
chapter of Genesis, uttered by Jacob in reference to one of 
his children, " Naphtali is a hind let loose ; he giveth goodly 
words," has been translated by Bochart, Houbigant, and 
others, in these terms : — " Naphtali is a spreading tree, 
giving out beautiful branches." The meaning of the patri- 
arch unquestionably was, that the tribe about to descend 
from his son would be active and powerful, enjoying at once 
unrestrained freedom and abundance of food. It might be 
expressed thus : — Naphtali is a deer roaming at liberty; he 
shooteth forth noble branches, or majestic antlers ; his resi- 
dence shall be in a beautiful woodland country ; and, as 
Moses also predicted, " he shall be filled with the blessings 
of the Lord." 

The roebuck, or tzebi of the Hebrews, is regarded by Dr. 
Shaw as the gazelle,, or antelope, — a beautiful creature r 
which is very common all over Greece, Syria, the Holy 
Land, Egypt, and Barbary. It is known among Greek 
naturalists by the name of dorcas, from an allusion to its- 
fine eyes, the brilliancy and liveliness of which have passed 
into a proverb in all eastern countries. The damsel whose 
name was Tabitha, which is by interpretation Dorcas, might 
fee so called from this particular feature. The antelope 
likewise is in great esteem among the orientals for food, 
having a very sweet musky taste, which is highly agreeable 
to their palates ; and, therefore, the tzebi might well be re- 
ceived as one of the dainties at Solomon's table.* If, then, 
says the author just quoted, we lay all these circumstances 
together, they will appear to be much more applicable to the 
gazelle, or antelope, which is a quadruped well known and 
gregarious, than to the roe, which was either not known at 
all, or at least was very rare in those countries. 

The fallow-deer, or yachmur of the Bible y is received 
among commentators as the wild beeve, — an animal equal in 
size to the stag, or red deer, to which it bears some resem- 
blance. It frequents the solitary parts of Judea and the 



* 1 KiBgs iv. 23. 



NATURAL HISTORY OF PALESTINE. 3 13 



surrounding countries, and, like the antelope, is everywhere 
gregarious. Its flesh is also very sweet and nourishing^ 
and was frequently seen at the tables of kings. 

The wild goS,t, or akko, mentioned in Deuteronomy, is 
not held sufficiently specific by naturalists, who imagine that 
it must be identified with another animal called by the Sev- 
enty tragelaphus, literally the goat-deer. The horns of this 
species, which are farrowed and wrinkled as in the goat 
kind, are a foot or fifteen inches long, and bend over the 
back ; though they are shorter and more crooked than those 
of the ibex or steinbuck. It is not unfrequently known by 
the more familiar name of lerwee. 

Considerable obscurity hangs over the natural history of 
the pyg&rg, the characteristics of which have not hitherto 
been well determined. The word itself, it has been re- 
marked, seems to denote a creature whose hinder parts are 
of a white colour. Such, says Dr. Shaw, is the lidme&> 
which is shaped exactly like the common antelope, with 
which it agrees in colour and in the shape of its horns, only 
that in the lidmee they are of twice the length* as the anhnal 
itself is of twiee the size. 

The sixth species is the wild ox> or thau of the Mosaical 
catalogue, which has generally been rendered the oryx. IVow 
this animal is described to be of the goat kind, with the hair 
growing forward, or towards the head. It is further de- 
scribed to be of the size of a beeve, and to be likewise a 
fierce creature, contrary to what is observed of the goat of 
deer kind, which, unless they are irritated and highly pro- 
voked, are all of them of a shy and timorous nature. The 
only quadruped that we are acquainted with to which these 
marks will apply is the buffalo, well known in Egypt and in 
various parts of Western Asia. It may be so far reckoned 
of the goat kind, as the horns are not smooth and even as in 
the beeve, but rough and wrinkled as in the goat. It is, 
besides, nearly the same as the common beeve, and there- 
fore agrees so far with the description of Herodotus. It is 
also a sullen, spiteful animal, being often known to pursue 
the unwary, especially if clad in scarlet. For these reasons, 
the buffalo may not improperly be taken for the thau or 
oryx, whereof we have had hitherto little account.* 



* Shaw's Travels, vol. ii. p. 280, 
Dd 



814 NATURAL HISTORY OF PALESTINE, 



The chamois, or zomer of the ancient Jews, has by di£ 
ferent authors been described as the camelopard or giraffe. 
The Syriac version renders the original term into one which 
signifies the mountain-goat, and so far coincides with our 
common translation of the Scriptures, though it is extremely 
doubtful whether the chamois or the ibex was to be found 
in any district of Palestine. Dr. Shaw holds the opinion 
that the zomer must have been the giraffe; for though it 
was a rare animal, and not known in Europe before the 
dictatorship of Julius Csesar, it might, he thinks, have been 
common enough in Egypt, as it was a native of Ethiopia, 
the adjoining country. It may therefore be presumed, says 
he, that the Israelites, during their long residence in the 
land of the Pharaohs, were not only well acquainted with it, 
but might at different times have tasted its flesh. 

This inference is rejected with some show of reason by 
the editor of Calmet's Dictionary, who remarks, it is very 
unlikely that the giraffe, being a native of the torrid zone 
and attached to hot countries, should be so abundant in 
Judea as to be made an article of food. The same argument 
applies to the chamois, which, as it inhabits the highest 
mountains, and seeks the most elevated spots, where snow 
and ice prevail, to shelter it from the heat of summer, was 
probably unknown to the people of Israel. Hence, it still 
remains doubtful to what class of animals the zomer of Moses 
should be attached, though, in our opinion, the balance of 
authorities seems to incline in favour of a small species of 
goat which browsed in the hill-country of Syria. 

The unicorn, or reem, mentioned in the book of Job, has 
given similar occasion to a variety of opinion. Parkhurst 
imagines that by this term is meant the wild bull, for it is 
evidently an animal of great strength and possessed of horns. 
Mr. Scott, in his Commentary on the Bible, adopts the same 
view, and reminds his reader, that the bulls of Bashan de- 
scribed by the Psalmist are by the same inspired writer de- 
nominated reems. Other expounders of Sacred Writ main- 
tain that the creature alluded to by the patriarch of Uz can 
have been no other than the double-horned rhinoceros.* 

The wild ass, or para, celebrated by the same ancient 
author, is generally understood to be the onager, an animal 

* Job xxxix. ver. 9, 10, ll r 12. 



NATURAL HISTORY OF PALESTINE. 315 

which is to this day highly prized in Persia and the deserts 
of Tartary, as being fitter for the saddle than the finest 
breed of horses. It has nothing of the duiness or stu- 
pidity of the common ass ; is extremely beautiful ; and, 
when properly trained, is docile and tractable in no common 
degree. It was this more valuable kind of ass that Saul 
was in search of when he was chosen by the prophet to 
discharge the duties of royalty. " Who hath sent out the 
wild ass free? or who hath loosed the bands of the wild 
ass 1 whose house I have made the wilderness, and the 
barren land his dwellings. He scorneth the multitude of 
the city, neither regardeth he the crying of the driver. The 
range of the mountains is his pasture, and he seareheth 
after every green thing."* 

The " wild goats of the rock," described in the chapter 
just quoted, are supposed to be the same as the ibex or 
bouquetin. This animal is larger than the tame goat, but 
resembles it much in form. The head is small in propor- 
tion to the body, with the muzzle thick and compressed, 
and a little arched. The eyes are large and round, and 
have much fire and brilliancy. The horns are so majestic, 
that when fully grown they occasionally weigh sixteen or 
eighteen pounds. He feeds daring the night in the highest 
woods ; but the sun no sooner begins to gild the summits, 
than he quits the woody region, and mounts, feeding in his 
progress, till he has reached the most considerable heights. 
The female shows much attachment to her young, and even 
defends it against eagles, wolves, and other enemies. She 
takes refuge in some cavern, and, presenting her head at the 
entrance of the hole, resolutely opposes the assailants. 
Hence the allusion to this affectionate creature in the book 
of Proverbs, " Let thy wife be as the loving hind and the 
pleasant roe." 

The saphan of the Bible is usually translated cony. 
" The high hills are a refuge for the wild goats, and the 
rocks for the conies." But it is now believed that the ash- 
koko, an animal mentioned by Bruce, presents properties 
which accord much better with the description of the saphan 
given in different parts of the Old Testament, than the 
cony, hare, or rabbit. This curious creature, we are told 



* Job xxxix. 5, 6, 7, 8 , 



816 NATURAL HISTORY OF PALESTINE 



by that traveller, is found in Ethiopia, in the caverns of the 
rocks, or under great stones. It does not burrow or make 
holes like the rat or rabbit, nature havino- interdicted this 
practice by furnishing it with feet, the toes of which are 
perfectly round, and of a soft, pulpy, tender substance : the 
fleshy part of them projects beyond the nails, which are 
rather sharp, very similar to a man's nails ill-grown, and 
appear given to it rather for the defence of its soft toes, than 
for any aetive use in digging, to which they are by no means 
adapted.* 

A living writer, who has considered this subject with 
great attention, gives as the result of his inquiry, that the 
saphan of the ancient Hebrews, rendered " cony" in the 
English Bible, is a very different animal ; that it has a 
nearer resemblance to the hedgehog, the bear, the mouse, 
the jerboa, or the marmot, though it is not any of these. 
It is the webro of the Arabians, the daman-Israel of Shaw, 
the ashkoko of Bruce, and clipdass of the Dutch, t 

The prophet Isaiah, in recording the idolatrous and pro* 
fane habits of his eountrymen, mentions the " eating of 
swine's flesh, and the abomination, and the mouse." This 
is supposed to be the jerboa, an animal common in the 
East, about the size of a rat, and which only uses its hind- 
legs. There can be little doubt that this is the creature 
alluded to by the Hebrew legislator when he said, " What- 
soever goeth upon its paws, among all manner of beasts 
that go on all four, those are unclean unto you." Hassel- 
quist tells us that the jerboa, or leaping-rat, as he calls it, 
moves only by leaps and jumps. When he stops he brings 
his feet close under his belly, and rests on the juncture of 
his leg. He uses, when eating, his fore-paws, like other 
animals of his kind. He sleeps by day, and is in motion 
during the night. He eats corn and grains of sesamum. 
Though he does not fear man, he is not easily tamed ; for 
which reason he must be kept in a cage. 

The porcupine, or kephad, is spoken of in the writings 
of Isaiah under the denomination of the bittern. " I will 
make Babylon a possession for the bittern and pools of 

* Appendix to Brace's Travels, p. 139. 

t See an article in the sixth volume of the Wernerian Memoirs, by' 
Dr. Scott, of Corstorphine, " On the Animal called Saphan in the He' 
brew Scriptures." 



natural history of Palestine 



317 



water.* 1 In another chapter, the inspired author associates 
the kephad with the pelican, with the yanshaph or ardea- 
ibis, and with oreb, or the raven kind ; and hence a con- 
siderable difficulty has arisen in regard to the class of ani- 
mals in which it ought to be ranked. Bochart had no doubt 
that the porcupine was in the mind of the prophet when he 
wrote the description of the Assyrian capital wasted and 
abandoned. This creature is a native of the hottest climates 
of Africa and India, and yet can live and multiply in milder 
latitudes. It is now found in Spain, and in the Apennines 
near Rome. Pliny asserts that the porcupine, like the 
bear, hides itself in winter. In a Memoir on Babylon, by 
the late Mr. Rich, it is stated that great quantities of por- 
cupine-quills were found on the spot ; and that in most of 
the cavities are numbers of bats and owls. 

The mole and the bat are reckoned amono- the unclean 
animals forbidden to the Jews bv their Divine lawgiver. 
The latter is distinctly included under the following descrip- 
tion : " Every creeping thing that flieth shall be unclean to 
you ; they shall not be eaten." The legs of the bat appear 
to be absolutely different from those of all other animals, 
and indeed they are directed, and even formed in a very 
particular manner. In order to advance, he raises both his 
front-legs at once, and places them at a small distance for- 
ward; at the same time the thumb of each foot points out- 
ward, and the creature catches with the claw at any thing 
which it can lay hold of ; then he stretches behind him his 
two hind-legs, so that the five toes of each foot are also 
directed backward ; he supports himself on the sole of this 
foot, and secures himself by means of the claws on "his 
toes ; then he raises his body on the front-legs, and throws 
himself forward by folding the upper arm on the fore-arm, 
which motion is assisted by the extension of the hind-legs, 
which also push the body forward. This gait, though 
heavy, because the body falls to the ground at every step, is 
yet sometimes pretty quick, when the feet can readily meet 
with good holding-places ; but when the claw of the front 
foot meets with any thing loose, the exertion is inefficient.* 

" Daubenton, Calmet, vol. iv. p. 645 See also Shav, Hasselquist, 
and Bochart 

Dd2 



818 NATURAL HISTORY OF PALESTINE. 



SECTION IV. — BIRDS. 

In the writings of Moses, the winged tribes are divided 
into three classes, according as they occupy the air, the land, 
pr the water, 

BIRDS OF THE AIR. 
English Translation, Probable Spirits. 

Eagle Eagle. 

Ossifrage , . , Vulture. 

Ospray . . Black Eagle. 

Vulture Hawk. 

Kite Kite. 

Raven........ Raven, 

LAND BIRDS. 

Owl Ostrich. 

Night-hawk. Night-owl, 

Cuckoo Saf-saf. 

Hawk .Ancient Ihis, 

WATER BIRDS. 

Little Owl Sea-gull. 

Cormorant ? , . , Cormorant. 

Great Owl Ibis Ardea. 

Swan Wild Goose. 

Pelican . . , Pelican. t 

Gier Eagle . . Alcyone. 

Stork Stork. 

Heron Long- neck, 

Lapwing Hoopoe. 



These are the unclean birds, according to the Mosaical 
arrangement and the views of the English translators. But 
it must not be concealed, that the attainments of the latter 
in ornithology were not particularly accurate ; and, as a 
proof of this, we may mention a fact obvious to the youngest 
student of Oriental languages, that the same Hebrew words 
in Leviticus and Deuteronomy are not always rendered by 
the same term in our tongue. For example, the vulture of 
the former book is in the latter called the glede ; and there 
are many similar variations, in different parts of the Old 
Testament, in regard to the others, 

The swan, or tinshemet of the Hebrews, is a very doubt- 
ful bird. The Seventy render it by porphyrion, which sigr 
nines a purple hen, a water-fowl well known in the East, 



NATURAL HISTORY OF PALESTINE. 319 



Br. Geddes observes that the root or etymon of the term 
tinshemet denotes breathing or respiring, — a description 
which is supposed to point to a well-known quality in the 
swan, that of being able to respire a long time with its bill 
and neck under water, and even plunged in mad. Park- 
hurst thinks the conjecture of Michaelis not improbable, 
namely, " that it is the goose, which every one knows is 
remarkable for its manner of breathing out or hissing when 
provoked." The latter writer observes, "what inakes me 
conjecture this is, that the Chaldee interpreters who in 
Leviticus render it obija, do not use this word in Deuter- 
onomy, but substitute the * white kak,' which, according to 
Buxtorf, denotes the goose." Norden mentions a goose 
of the Nile whose plumage is extremely beautiful. It is of 
an exquisite aromatic taste, smells of ginger, and has a great 
deal of flavour. Can this be the Hebrew tinshemet, and the 
porphyrion of the Seventy 1 

Again, it is conjectured by modern naturalists that the 
heron should be included among storks. Commentators, it 
is true, are quite at a loss in regard to the precise import 
of the original term anapha, and some of them accordingly 
leave it altogether untranslated. It is not improbable that 
the Long-neck mentioned by Dr. Shaw may be the animal 
alluded to by the sacred lawgiver. This bird, we are told, 
is of the bittern kind, somewhat less than the lapwing. 
The neck, the breast, and the belly are of a light yellow 
colour, while the back and upper part of the wings are jet- 
black. The tail is short ; the feathers of the neck are long, 
and streaked with white or a pale yellow. The bill, which 
is three inches long, is green, and in form like that of the 
stork ; and the legs, which are short and slender, are of the 
same colour. In walking and searching for food, it throws 
out its neck seven or eight inches ; whence the Arabs call 
it Boo-onk, or Long-neck.* 

The hoopoe is thought to be pretty well ascertained ; yet 
we might suppose that a bird which frequents water more 
than the European variety does, would not have been mis- 
placed at the close of the list given above. The accuracy 
of the inspired writer, however, in treating this part of the 
subject, has been generally extolled, — an accuracy which, 

* Calmet's IHctfonary, vol. iy. p. 6£9. 



\ 



320 NATURAL HISTORY OF PALESTINE. 

there is no doubt, will hereafter lead to the most satisfac- 
tory conclusions in determining the several species he enu- 
merates. All these birds being fish-eaters, no distinction 
is afforded arising from diversity of food ; but the Hebrew 
naturalist begins with those which inhabit the sea and its 
rocky cliffs, the gannet and the cormorant ; then he pro- 
ceeds to the marsh birds, the bitterns ; then to the river and 
lake birds, the pelican, the kingfisher, or the shagarag ; 
then the stork, which is a bird of passage, lives on land as 
well as on water, and feeds on frogs and insects no less 
than on fish ; then to another, which probably is a bird of 
passage also, because it is mentioned the last in the cata- 
logue. The hoopoe is certainly a migratory bird, feeds less 
on fish than any of the former kinds, and has, in fact, no 
great relation to the water. 

It was objected by Michaelis that the chasidah of the 
Hebrews could not be the stork, because the latter bird 
does not usually roost on trees ; and yet it is asserted in 
the hundred-and-fourth Psalm, that the fir-trees are a dwell- 
ing for the stork. But Doubdan, who had no hypothesis 
to maintain, relates that he saw storks resting on trees be- 
tween Cana and Nazareth ; and Dr. Shaw says expressly, 
the storks breed plentifully in Barbary ; and that the fir- 
trees, and other trees when these are wanting, are a 
" dwelling for the stork." It is therefore probable that 
this bird conforms its manners to circumstances ; that 
wherever it obtains rest, security, and accommodation, there 
it resides, whether in a ruin or a forest. So that on the 
whole we need noc hesitate, merely because the European 
stork seldom inhabits trees, to admit that it is the chasidah 
of the Sacred Scriptures. 

We purposely abstain from the description of such birds 
as are common to Palestine and to the climates of Europe. 
The ostrich, no doubt, is peculiar to the deserts of Syria 
and of Arabia, and might therefore demand a more minute 
delineation than is consistent with our limits. Suffice it 
to mention, that it is one of the largest and most remark- 
able of the feathered tribes, and has been celebrated from 
the most remote antiquity by many fabulous writers, who 
ascribe to it qualities more wonderful than even those which 
it actually possesses. Its height is estimated at seven or 
weight feet, and in swiftness it surpasses every other animal, 



NATURAL HISTORY OF PALESTINE. 321 



That it is gregarious no naturalist any longer doubts, being 
generally seen in large troops at a great distance from the 
habitations of man. The egg is about three pounds in 
weight, and in the warmer countries of the East is usually 
hatched by the rays of the sun alone ; though in less 
heated regions the bird is observed to practise incubation. 

The same remarks might be applied to the pelican, 
whose solitary life as an inhabitant of the desert is occa- 
sionally referred to in the Sacred Writings. It appears, 
however, that this bird is migratory, whence we may con- 
clude that it is also gregarious, and does not always remain 
alone. In their motion through the air, the pelicans imi- 
tate the procedure of the wild-goose, and form their van 
into an acute angle. When of full age, the male is supe- 
rior in size to the swan, weighs twenty-five pounds, and 
from wing to wing extends not less than fifteen feet. The 
upper mandible is flat and broad, and hooked at the end ; 
the lower mandible has appended to it a very dilatable bag, 
reaching eight or nine inches down the neck, and large 
enough to contain several quarts of water. Its food is fish ; 
in diving for which it sometimes descends from a great 
height. When it has filled its pouch, it flies to some con- 
venient point of a rock, where it swallows its prey at 
leisure. The vulgar notion that the female pelican feeds 
her young with blood from her breast, has arisen from the 
use of the bag just described, which she opens from time 
to time to discharge a supply of fish or water for their 
nourishment. 



SECTION V. AMPHIBIA AND REPTILES. 

In the book of Deuteronomy there is an allusion made 
to a destructive creature in the following terms : — " Their 
wine is the poison of dragons and the cruel venom of asps." 
It is thought that the gecko is the animal contemplated in 
this description, it being acknowledged by all naturalists to 
contain a mortal poison. Nature, in this instance, says 
Buffon, appears to act against herself : in a lizard, whose 
species is but too prolific, she exalts a corrosive liquid to 
such a degree as to carry death and dissolution into all liv«? 



322 NATURAL HISTORY OF PALESTINE. 



ing substances which it may happen to penetrate. This 
deadly reptile has some resemblance to the chameleon ; his 
head, almost triangular, is big in proportion to his body ; 
the eyes are very large, the tongue is flat, covered with 
small scales, and the end is rounded ; the teeth are sharp, 
and so strong that, according to Bontius, they are able to 
make an impression even on steel. The gecko is almost 
entirely covered with large warts, more or less rising ; the 
under part of the thigh is furnished with a row of tubercles 
raised and grooved. The feet are remarkable for oval 
scales, more or less hollowed in the middle, as large as the 
under surface of the toes themselves, and regularly dis- 
posed over one another, like slates on a roof. The usual 
colour of this animal is a clear green, spotted with brilliant 
red. It inhabits the crevices of half-rotten trees as well as 
humid places ; it is sometimes met with in houses, where 
it occasions great alarm, and where every exertion is made 
to destroy it speedily. Bontius writes, that the bite is so 
venomous that, if the part bitten be not cut away or burned, 
death ensues in a few hours. 

Calmet enumerates eleven kinds of serpents as known 
to the Hebrews, the names of which are as follow :- — 



1. Ephe, the viper. 

2. Chephir, a sort of aspic. 

3. Acshub, the aspic. 

4. Pethen, a similar reptile. 

5. Tzeboa, speckled serpent. 

6. Tzimmaon. 



7. Tzepho, or Tzephoni, a basi- 

lisk. 

8. Kippos, the acontias. 

9. Shephiphon, the cerastes. 

10. Shacha), the black serpent. 

11. Saraph, a flying-serpent. 



The first of these is remarkable for its quick and pene- 
trating poison ; it is about two feet long, and as thick as a 
man's arm, beautifully spotted with yellow and brown, and 
sprinkled over with blackish specks, similar to those of the 
horn-nosed snake. It has a wide mouth, by which it in- 
hales a great quantity of air, and, when fully inflated, ejects 
it with such violence as to be heard at a considerable dis- 
tance. 

The shachal, or black serpent, is described by Forskall as 
being wholly of that colour, a cubit in length, and as thick 
as a finger. Its bite is not incurable, but the wound swells 
severely ; the application of a ligature prevents the venom 
from spreading ; or certain plants, as the caper, may be 
employed to relieve it. Mr. Jackson describes a black ser- 



NATURAL HISTORY OF PALESTINE. 323 



pent of much more terrific powers. It is about seven or 
eight feet long, with a small head, which, when about to 
assail any object, it frequently expands to four times 
its ordinary size. It is the only one that will attack trav- 
ellers ; in doing which it coils itself up, and darts to a great 
distance by the elasticity of its body and tail. The wound 
inflicted by the bite is small, but the surrounding part im- 
mediately turns black, which colour soon pervades the 
whole body, and the sufferer expires. 

But, viewed in connexion with Scripture, the most inter- 
esting in the list given in the preceding page is that which 
stands the seventh in order. Speaking of the happy time 
revealed by the prophetical spirit, Isaiah remarks that " the 
sucking child shall play on the hole of the asp, and the 
weaned child shall put his hand on the cockatrice' den.*' 
The editor of Calmet's Dictionary imagines that the naja, 
or cobra di capello, is the serpent here alluded to by the 
holy penman, and which is known to possess the mo it ener- 
getic poison. We cannot indeed discover positively, 
whether it lays eggs ; but the evidence for that fact is pre- 
sumptive, because all serpents issue from eggs ; and the 
only difference between the oviparous and viviparous is, 
that in the fonner the eggs are laid before the foetus is ma- 
ture, in the latter the foetus bursts the egg while yet in the 
womb of its mother. 

If the egg be broken, the little serpent is found rolled up 
in a spiral form. It appears motionless during some time ; 
but if the term of its exclusion be near, it opens its jaws, 
inhales at several respirations the air of the atmosphere, its 
lungs fill, it stretches itself, and moved by this impetus it 
begins to crawl. 

The eggs of this reptile have probably given occasion to 
a fable, which says that cocks can lay eggs, but that these 
always produce serpents ; and that though the cock does 
not hatch them, the warmth of the sand and atmosphere 
answers the purposes of incubation. The eggs of the 
tzepho, of which she lays eighteen or twenty, are equal to 
those of a pigeon, while those of the great boa are not 
more than two or three inches in length. As an instance, 
that the eggs of poisonous serpents do not always burst in 
the body of the female, we may mention the cerastes, 



824 NATURAL HISTORY OF PALESTINE. 



which, we are assured, lays in the sand at least four or 
five, resembling in size those of a dove. 

On the grounds now explained, we may understand the 
language of the prophet Isaiah, who says of the wicked that 
" they hatch cockatrice' eggs ; he that eateth of their eggs 
dieth, and that which is crushed breaketh forth into a viper." 
The reptile here alluded to under the name of cockatrice, 
is the tzepho or tzephoni ; which, we find, lays eggs so sim- 
ilar to those of poultry, as to be mistaken and eaten for 
them. Labat farther relates that he crushed some eggs of 
a large serpent, and found several young in each egg ; 
which were no sooner freed from the shell than they coiled 
themselves into the attitude of attack, and were ready to 
spring on whatever came in their way. 

In the forty-ninth chapter of Genesis we find the remark- 
able prediction uttered by Jacob in reference to Dan, that 
he " shall be a serpent in the way, an adder in the path, 
which biteth the horse's heels." The original term here 
is shephiphon, and is understood by several authors to de- 
note the cerastes, a very poisonous kind of viper, distin- 
guished by having horns. This animal, we are informed 
by Mr. Bruce, moves with great rapidity, and in all direc- 
tions, forward, backward, and sideways. When he wishes 
to surprise any one who is too far from him, he creeps with 
his side towards the person, and his head averted, till, judg- 
ing his distance, he turns round and springs upon him. " I 
saw one of them at Cairo crawl up the side of a box in 
which there were many, and there lie still as if hiding him- 
self, till one of the people who brought him to us came 
near him ; and though in a very disadvantageous posture, 
sticking as it were perpendicularly to the side of the box, 
he leaped nearly the distance of three feet, and fastened 
between the man's forefinger and thumb, so as to bring the 
blood. The fellow showed no signs of either pain or fear ; 
and we kept him with us full four hours, without applying 
any sort of remedy, or his seeming inclined to do so." 

The Arabs name this serpent sifF, siphon, or suphon, 
which seems not very far distant from the root of the He- 
brew word siffifon or shephiphon. It is called by the Ori- 
entals the Her in wait, — an appellation which agrees with 
the manners of the cerastes. Pliny says, that it hides its 
whole body in the sand, leaving only its horns exposed, 



NATURAL HISTORY OF PALESTINE. 326 



which, being like grains of barley in appearance, attract 
birds within its reach, so as to become an easy prey. From 
these circumstances we see, more distinctly, the propriety 
of the allusion made by the patriarch to the insidious policy 
which was to characterize the descendants of Dan in the 
remoter periods of their history. 

There is mention made in Holy Scripture of the fiery 
flying-serpent, a creature about whose existence and quali- 
ties naturalists have entertained a considerable difference 
of opinion. It is now generally admitted, that, in Guinea, 
Java, and other countries, where there is at once great 
heat and a marshy soil, there exists a species of these ani- 
mals, which have the power of moving in the air, or at least 
of passing from tree to tree. Niebuhr relates, that at Bazra, 
also, " there is a sort of serpents, called heie sursurie. 
They commonly live on dates ; and as it would be trouble- 
some to them to come down one high tree and creep up 
another, they hang by the tail to the branch of one, and, by 
swinging that about, take advantage of its motion to leap 
to that of a second. These the modern Arabs call flvinff- 
serpents — heie thidre. I do not know whether the ancient 
Arabs were acquainted with any other kind of flying-ser- 
pent."* 

Near Batavia there are certain flying-snakes, or dragons, 
as they are sometimes called. They have four legs, a long 
tail, and their skin speckled with many spots ; their wings 
are not unlike those of a bat, which they move in flying, 
but otherwise keep them almost unperceived, close to the 
body. They fly nimbly, but cannot hold out long ; so that 
they only shift from tree to tree at about twenty or thirty 
yards' distance. On the outside of the throat are two 
bladders, which, being extended when they fly, serve them 
instead of a sail.f 

The scorpion, or okrab of the Hebrews, has also been 
invested by Oriental naturalists with the power of flying. 
Lucian tells us that there are two kinds of scorpions, one 
residing on the ground, large, having claws, and many ar- 
ticulations at the tail ; the other flies in the air, and has 
inferior wings like locusts, beetles, and bats. In tropical 
climates, the scorpion is a foot in length. No animal in the 



* See Calmet, vol. iv. p. 688. f Churchill's Voyages, vol. ii. p. 29a 

Ee 



326 NATURAL HISTORY OF PALESTINE. 



creation seems endowed with such an irascible nature. 
When caught, they exert their utmost rage against the glass- 
which contains them ; will attempt to sting a stick when 
put near them ; will, without provocation, wound other 
animals confined with them ; and are the cruellest enemies 
to each other. Maupertuis put a hundred of them together 
in the same glass ; instantly they vented their rage in mu- 
tual destruction, universal carnage ! In a few days only 
fourteen remained, which had killed and devoured all the 
others. It is even asserted, that when in extremity or 
despair the scorpion will destroy itself. Well might Moses 
mention this animal as one of the dangers of the howling 
wilderness ! They are still very numerous in the desert 
between Syria and Egypt. Dr. Clarke tells us that one of 
the privates of the British army, who had received a wound 
from one of them, lost the upper joint of his forefinger be- 
fore it could be healed. The author of the Revelation 
considers them as emblematic of the evils which issue from 
the bottomless pit. " And there came out of the smoke 
locusts upon the earth ; and unto them was given power r 
as the scorpions of the earth have power. And they had 
tails like unto scorpions ; and there were stings in their 
tails : and their power was to hurt men five months."* 

We ought not to be surprised that the translators of the 
English Bible were occasionally at a loss to distinguish the 
genera and species of the several animals mentioned in the 
Sacred Writings ; for even at the present day, when we 
possess infinitely higher advantages in point of natural 
knowledge, we cannot precisely determine even the class 
or order to which some of them belong. We have an ex- 
ample of this obscurity in the fourth chapter of the book 
of Lamentations, where it is said that " even the sea- 
monsters draw out the breast, they give suck to their young 
ones." The original expression, tannin, appears applicable 
to those amphibious animals that haunt the banks of rivers 
and the shores of the sea, and was probably used by the 
prophet with a reference to the seal species, which suckle 
their young in the manner described in his pathetic elegy. 

It is true, that it is used in Genesis in connexion with 
the epithet large, and is therefore not improperly rendered 



* Revelation ix. 3, 10.. 



NATURAL HISTORY OF PALESTINE. 327 



" great whales." Hence it has been concluded, that the 
word tannin may comprehend the class of lizards from the 
eft to the crocodile, provided they be amphibious ; also the 
seal, the manati, the morse, and even the whale, if he came 
ashore ; but as whales remain constantly in the deep, they 
seem to be more correctly ascribed to the class of fishes. 
Moreover, whether the people of Syria had any knowledge 
of the whale kinds, strictly so called, is a point which 
deserves inquiry before it be admitted as certain. At all 
events, it is manifest that the tannin of the Scripture must 
have indicated an animal whieh has many properties com- 
mon to the seal, for it not only applies the breast to its 
young, but has the power of exerting its voice in a mourn- 
ful tone. The prophet Micah says, " I will make a wailing 
like the tanninim," a phrase which, in our translation? is 
unhappily rendered " dragons." It has also the faculty of 
suspending respiration, or of drawing in a quantity of breath 
and of emitting it with violence. " The wild asses," says 
Jeremiah, " stand upon the high places ; they puff out the 
breath like the tanninim (here again translated dragons) ; 
their eyes fail because there is no grass." On the whole, 
remarks the editor of Calmet, we mav consider the Hebrew^ 
tahash as being decidedly a seal ; but tannin as including 
creatures resident both on land and in water, or, in other 
words, the amphibia.* 



SECTION VI. FRUITS AND PLANTS. 

It has been remarked that, if the advantages of nature 
were duly seconded by the efforts of human skill, we might 
in the space of twenty leagues bring together in Syria the 
vegetable riches of the most distant countries. Besides 
wheat, rye, barley, beans, and the cotton-plant, which are 
cultivated everywhere, there are several objects of utility 
or pleasure, peculiar to different localities. Palestine, for 
example, abounds in sesamum, which affords oil ; and in 
dhoura, similar to that of Egypt. Maize thrives in the light 
soil of Balbec, and rice is cultivated with success along the 



* Calmet's Dictionary, vol. iv. p. 696. 



328 NATURAL HISTORY OF PALESTINE 



marsh of Haoule. Within these twenty-five years sugar 
canes have been introduced into the gardens of Saida and 
Beirout, which are not inferior to those of the Delta. Indigo 
grows without culture on the banks of the Jordan, and only 
requires a little care to secure a good quality. The hills of 
Latakie produce tobacco, which creates a commercial inter- 
course with Damietta and Cairo. This crop is at present 
cultivated in all the mountains. The white mulberry forms 
the riches of the Druses, by the beautiful silks which are 
obtained from it ; and the vine, raised on poles or creeping 
along the ground, furnishes red and white wines equal to 
those of Bordeaux. Jaffa boasts of her lemons and water- 
melons ; Gaza possesses both the dates of Mecca and the 
pomegranates of Algiers. Tripoli has oranges which might 
vie with those of Malta ; Beirout has figs like Marseilles, 
and bananas like St. Domingo. Aleppo is unequalled for 
pistachio-nuts ; and Damascus possesses all the fruits of 
Europe ; inasmuch as apples, plums, and peaches, grow 
with equal facility on her rocky soil. Niebuhr is of opi- 
nion that the Arabian coffee-shrub might be cultivated in 
Palestine.* 

The jig-tree, the palm, and the olive, are characteristic of 
the Holy Land, and therefore deserve our more particular 
attention. In regard to the first, the earliest fruit produced, 
which is usually ripe in June, is called the boccore ; the 
later, or proper fig, being rarely fit to be gathered before 
the month of August. The name of these last is the ker- 
mez, or kermouse. They constitute the article which passes 
through the hands of the merchant, after being either pre- 
served in the common way or made up into cakes. They 
continue a long time on the tree before they fall off; whereas 
the boccore drop as soon as they are ripe, and according to 
the beautiful allusion of the prophet Nahum, fall into the 
mouth of the eater upon being shaken." 

The palm must at one time have been common in Palest- 
tine, though at present it fails to attract attention either on 
account of number or of beauty. In several coins of Ves- 
pasian, as well as of his son Titus, the land of Judea is 
typified by a disconsolate woman sitting under one of these 
fc*ees, Jericho, which was formerly distinguished as the 



* Malte Brun, vol. ii. p. 130. 



NATURAL HISTORY OF PALESTINE. 329 



" city of palms," can still boast a few of them, because, 
besides the advantage of a sandy soil and a warm climate, 
it commands a plentiful supply of water, an element abso- 
lutely indispensable to their growth. At Jerusalem, She- 
chem, and other places to the northward of the capital, not 
more than two or three of them are ever seen together ; 
and even these, as their fruit rarely comes to maturity, are 
of no farther service than, like the palm-tree of Deborah, 
to shade the council of the sheiks, or to supply the branches, 
which, as in ancient days, may still be required for religious 
processions.* 

The olive no longer holds the place which it once occu- 
pied in the estimation of the inhabitants of Palestine. The 
wretched government under which they exist has rooted 
out all the seeds of industry, by rendering the absence of 
wealth the only security against oppression. But in those 
places where it continues to be cultivated, it affords ample 
proof to establish the accuracy of the inspired writer, who 
denominated Palestine a land of oil-olive and honey. 

The cedars of Libanus still maintain their ancient repu- 
tation for beauty and stature ; while they are diversified by 
a thousand elegant plants, which dispute with them the pos- 
session of the lofty summits of the mountain. Here the 
astragalus tragacanthoides displays its clusters of purple 
flowers ; and the primrose, the amaryllis, the white and the 
orange lily, mingle their brilliant hues with the verdure of 
the birch-leaved cherry. Even the snow of the highest 
peaks is skirted by shrubs possessing the most splendid 
colours. The coolness, humidity, and good quality of the 
soil support an uninterrupted vegetation ; and the bounties 
of nature in those elevated regions are still protected by the 
spirit of liberty. 

Hasselquist is of opinion that the wild-grapes mentioned 
by the prophet Isaiah must be the hoary night-shade, or 
soianum incanum, because it is common in Egypt, Palestine, 
and Syria. The Arabs call it wolf-grapes, as, from its 
shrubby stalk, it has some resemblance to a vine. But the 
sacred writer could not have found a weed more opposite to 
the vine than this, or more suitable to the purpose which he 
had in view, for it is extremely pernicious to that plant, and 



* Shaw's Travels, vol. ii. p. 152. 
Ee 2 



S30 NATURAL HISTORY OF PALESTINE. 



is rooted out whenever it appears. " Wherefore," exclaims 
the holy seer, " when I looked that my vineyard should bring 
forth grapes, brought it forth poisonous night-shade ?"* 

The author just named, describes the "balsam of Aaron" 
as a very fine oil, which emits no scent or smell, and is very 
proper for preparing odoriferous ointments. It is obtained 
from a tree called behen, which grows in Mount Sinai and 
Upper Egypt, and, it is presumed, in certain parts of the 
Holy Land. Travellers assert that it is the very perfume 
with which the ancient high-priest of the Jews, with whose 
name it is connected, was wont to anoint his beard, and 
which the Psalmist extols so much on account of its rich 
odour and mollifying qualities,— -the emblem of domestic 
harmony and brotherly love. 

There still exists a thorn in Palestine known among 
botanists by the name of the " spina Christi," or thorn of 
Christ, and supposed to be the shrub which afforded the 
crown worn by our Saviour before his crucifixion. It must 
have been very fit for the purpose, for it has many small 
sharp prickles, well adapted to give pain ; and as the leaves 
greatly resemble those of ivy, it is not improbable that the 
enemies of the Messiah chose it from its similarity to the 
plant with which emperors and generals were accustomed 
to be crowned ; and hence that there might be calumny, in- 
sult, and derision, meditated in the very act of punishment.* 

f Jsaiah v. 4. t Voyages and Travels in the Levant, p. 288, 



■THE END. 



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Croly. With a Portrait. 18mo. 

" Mr. Croly has acquitted himself very handsomely. His subject is 
one of much interest, and he has treated it with unusual impartiality. 
The author's style is chaste, classical, and beautiful, and it may be taken I 
as a model of fine writing. It is worthy of his genius and his educa- 
tion." — Mercantile A dvertiser. 

" This number is from the eloquent and powerful pen of the Rev. George 
Croly. It promises much entertainment and instruction. The name of 
tl e writer is a sufficient passport to the public attention." — Com. Adv. 

"This is an interesting volume, blending most beautifully instruction 
vifh amusement." — Long Island Patriot. 

" Mr. Croly is a man of talent , and can write well. There is proof of 
this in the volume before us. The reflections that naturally arise out 
of the subject are philosophical and just; and the sketches of charactet 
of the leading men and ministers are drawn with a bold and vigorous 
hand."— 77>e Athenaeum. 

"The portraits of the Prince's friends are in the best style, and 
sketched with impartial freedom. Fox, Burke, Sheridan, Erskine, Cur- 
ran were of the splendid galaxy, pnd the characteristics of each are well 
preserved in Mr. Croly's pages." — GentlemanJs Magazine. 

" Mr. Croly is not merely a fine writer, but a very powerful one. His 
outline is as bold and broad as his colours are glowing. He writes like 
a man well acquainted with his subject." — Eclectic Review. 

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